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*  Vl  "•     ** 
«»*  v  \ 


MEMOIRS 

OF  THE 

MOST    EMINENT 

AMERICAN  MECHANICS: 

ALSO, 

LIVES  OF  DISTINGUISHED  EUROPEAN  MECHANICS; 

TOGETHER  WITH  A  COLLECTION  OF 

ANECDOTES,   DESCRIPTIONS,   &c.  &c. 

RELATING  TO  THE  MECHANIC  ARTS. 
ILLUSTRATED   BY   FIFTY  ENGRAVINGS. 


BY   HENRY   HOWE 


"The  due  cultivation  of  practical  manual  arts-in  a  irtuion,  has  a  greater  tendency  to 
polish  and  humanize  mankind,  than  mere  speculative  science,  however  refined  and  sublime 
it  njay  be." 


NEW    YORK: 

PUBLISHED  BY  ALEXANDER  V.   BLAKE, 
No.  54  Gold,  corner  of  Fulton-street. 

STEREOTYPED  BY  R.  C.  VALENTINE,  45  GOLD-STREET. 

1842. 


T3? 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1841,  by 

ALEXANDER  V.  BLAKE, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York 


R.  CRAIGHEAD,  Printer,  112  Fulton-street,  N.  Y. 


PREFACE. 


IT  is  singular  that  so  little  interest  should  heretofore  have  been 
taken  in  the  history  of  those  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the 
arts  and  inventions  constituting  the  glory  of  our  time.  The  pen 
has  ever  been  more  ready  to  record  the  brilliant  than  the  useful. 
To  this  is  to  be  attributed  the  neglect  heretofore  manifested  in 
relation  to  these  subjects.  Indeed,  so  little  regard  has  been 
evinced,  that  a  late  foreign  writer,  who  happened  incidentally  to 
be  "  thrown  upon"  some  incidents  in  the  life  of  an  eminent 
mechanician,  considered  it  due  to  the  fastidiousness  of  public 
taste,  to  claim  indulgence  for  diverging  into  so  obscure  and 
tasteless  a  path  of  biographical  research.  But,  thanks  to  the 
more  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  the  light  of  Christianity, 
this  false  taste  is  rapidly  dissipating,  and  mankind  are  beginning 
to  appreciate  the  labors  of  those  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
our  present  unparalleled  state  of  intellectual  and  social  advance- 
ment. 

The  memoirs  of  the  benefactors  of  our  racCj  in  past  ages,  are 
often  histories  of  wrong;  and  those  who  have  labored  in  the 
department  of  mechanical  invention,  may  truly  be  termed  the 
martyrs  of  civilization!  The  causes  producing  this  state  of 


4  PREFACE. 

things  are  fading  away  before  the  intelligence  of  the  times,  and 
wise  and  just  laws  are  in  operation  to  protect  the  defenceless. 
As  has  been  aptly  observed,  "  the  strife  of  trade  has  superseded 
the  strife  of  war," — the  clash  and  din  of  arms  has  given  place  to 
the  busy  hum  of  industry,  the  ringing  of  the  anvil,  the  melody 
of  the  waterfall,  and  the  puff  of  the  steam  engine.  The  days 
of  tournaments  are  past, — the  mechanic  fairs  are  our  "  tilting 
grounds,"  where  the  conflict  is  not  for  physical  superiority,  but 
for  inventions  best  promoting  the  comfort  and  elegance  of  life. 
Although  much  has  been  done,  more  remains  to  be  accomplished. 
This  new  world  is  to  be  a  theatre  of  mighty  structures  for  the 
development  of  resources,  advancing,  beyond  present  conception, 
the  welfare  and  happiness  of  our  race 

Biographies  of  public  individuals  have  their  peculiar  advan- 
tages ;  but  examples  drawn  from  the  common  walks  prove  of 
more  practical  utility.  Such  are  here  presented ;  and  it  is  judged 
that  their  perusal  will  be  found  at  least  as  useful  as  tracing  the 
progress  of  a  military  hero  through  scenes  of  blood,  or  witness- 
ing the  more  peaceful  triumphs  of  some  champion  in  the  field  of 
political  strife. 

With  these  views  we  have  prosecuted  this  undertaking,  in  the 
hope  of  producing  a  series  of  memoirs,  which,  while  of  general 
interest,  would  be  useful  to  the  mechanic :  and  the  aim  being  to 
give  as  much  variety  as  possible  within  our  assigned  limits,  we 
have  reluctantly  excluded  several  characters,  who,  but  for  their 
similarity  of  pursuit,  would  have  adorned  our  pages. 

The  materials  are  drawn  from  a  variety  of  sources  ;  but  we  are 
principally  indebted  to  the  various  mechanical  journals  of  the  day, 
including  the  publications  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 


PREFACE.  5 

Knowledge.  Most  of  the  memoirs,  however,  in  the  American 
department  were  written  expressly  for  the  work,  while  several 
of  the  others  in  this  as  well  as  in  the  other  portion  have  under- 
gone more  or  less  modification. 

To  those  who  have  kindly  furnished  us  with  notices  of  their 
respective  friends,  we  feel  duly  grateful.  To  the  public  we  pre- 
sent the  result  of  our  labors,  with  the  desire  that  it  may  excite 
emulation,  and  illustrate  and  encourage  the  talent  and  persever- 
ance required  for  a  successful  cultivation  of  the  mechanic  arts. 

H.  H. 

NEW  HAVEN,  CT.,  Nov.  20,  1839. 

1* 


CONTENTS. 


AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

PAGE 

JOHN  FITCH           .  .  .        .        ,        .        .        .13 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  . 87 

OLIVER  EVANS      .  . •        68 

SAMUEL  SLATER    .  •  .        .        .        .        «        .        85 

ELI  WHITNEY       .  .  .        .        .        •        .        .       101 

DAVID  BUSHNELL  .  .  •        •        •        «        «        •       136 

AMOS  WHITTEMORE  •  .        •        •        •        •        ,147 

ROBERT  FULTON    ........       156 

JACOB  PERKINS      .  .  •        •        •        •        •        .       188 

THOMAS  BLANCHARD  .  •        •        •        .        •        ,197 

HENRY  ECKFORD  .  .        /i        •        •        •  211 
: 


CONTENTS. 


EUROPEAN  MECHANICS. 

PAGE 

JOHN  SMEATON    ....        .  219 

MARQUIS  OF  WORCESTER 228 

JAMES  FERGUSON    ' 237 

SAMUEL  CROMPTON 249 

WILLIAM  EDWARDS     .        .        .        .        .        .        .  253 

RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT *        .  258 

M.  GUINAND 270 

JAMES  WATT       ...                 ....  279 

JAMES  BRINDLEY 298 

JESSE  RAMSDEN 313 

EARL  OF  STANHOPE 318 

HOHLFIELD 323 

MATTHEW  BOULTON     .        .  # 327 

THOMAS  TELFORD 330 

EDMUND  CARTWRIGHT 336 

JOHN  WHITEHURST 342 

JAMES  HARGREAVES              .     ^C  347 

JOSEPH  BRAMAH 350 


ANECDOTES,  DESCRIPTIONS, 

ETC.,  ETC., 
RELATING  TO  THE  MECHANIC  ARTS. 


PAGE 

1  -ogress  of  Invention  illustrated    .         .         •         .         •  353 
111  istration  of  the  Ignorance  of  Foreigners   respecting 

American  Inventions         ......  355 

Singular  Origin  of  the  Invention  of  Frame-work  Knitting  358 

Ancient  and  Modern  Labor           .....  360 

The  Slide  of  Alpnach            ....  361 

American  Road-making 364 

Archimedes          .         .         .         .         •         •         .         •  367 

The  Inventor  of  the  Iron  Plough  ....  370 

Cotton  Manufacture  of  India          .         .         .'        .         .  372 

Description  of  the  Bridge  at  the  Niagara  Falls        .         .  376 

Thomas  Godfrey                             .^     .         .         .  378 

Musical  Kaleidoscope  .         .         .         .         .         .  379 

Bernard  Palissy 379 

Dyeing  Cloth  of  two  Colors  .         .         .         .         .         .  380 

Remarkable  Wooden  Bridge 380 

Celebrated  and  curious  Clocks  ^fc         ...  381 

Manufacture  of  Porcelain  and  Earthenware    .         .  386 

Inventors  and  Poets      .                            ....  391 

Public  Works  of  the  United  States         ....  392 

Manufactory  of  the  Gobelins 394 

March  of  Umbrellas      ...'...  395 

The  French  Machine-maker          .         .         .  396 

Manufacturing  Establishments       .         .         .         .         •  400 

The  Mechanical  Fiddler 402 


10  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Corn  Mills  in  ancient  times 404 

The  Obelisk  of  Luxor           ......  409 

American  Steamers .    . 416 

Simple  Origin  of  important  Discoveries          .         .         .  426 

Invention  of  the  Safety  Lamp        .         .         .         .         .  427 

The  Thames  Tunnel 428 

Watchmaking  in  Switzerland        .         .         .         .         .  441 

Perpetual  Motion          ...*...  445 

The  Balsa 448 

AUTOMATA           .         . 449 

Mechanical  Automata  of  the  Ancients    .         .         .  450 

Automata  of  Dsedalus    ......  450 

Wooden  Pigeon  of  Archytas           ....  450 

Automatic  Clock  of  Charlemagne  ....  450 

Automata  of  Muller  and  Turrianus         .         .         .  451 

Camus 's  Carriage          . 451 

Degennes1  Mechanical  Peacock               »  452 

Vaucanson's  Duck         .         .         .         .         .         »  452 

Drawing  and  writing  Automata      ...»  453 

Maillardet's  Conjurer    .         .         .         .         .         .  453 

Benefits  derived  from  the  passion  for  Automata       .  454 

Duncan's  Tambouring  Machine     .....  455 

Watt's  Statue-turning  Machinery  .....  457 

Babbage's  Calculating  Machine     .....  457 

Automaton  Chess  Player       .         .                  *  460 
Chinese  Bamboo  Irrigation  Wheel         .         .         .         *  469 
Discovery  of  Gunpowder,  and  mventions  arising  there- 
from   .                  470 

A  few  Remarks  on  the  Relation  which  subsists  between 

a  Machine  and  its  Model       .         *         .         .         .  471 

Shoes  and  Buckles       .......  475 

The  Croton  Aqueduct           .         . "       .         .         .         .  476 

Cugnot's  Steam  Carriage 479 

Eloquent  Description 480 

Watchmaker's  Epitaph 482 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

FRONTISPIECE. 

Fitch's  Steamboat 31 

The  first  American  Locomotive ;  or,  the  "  Oructor  Am- 

phibolis "  of  Evans          .         .         .        .         .      v.         77 

View  of  Pawtucket 93 

Birth-place  of  Whitney 103 

Cotton  Gin,  (Plan) 108 

Ditto/  (Section)       . 109 

View  of  Whitney's  Armory    t         .        .        .        .         .124 

Tomb  of  Whitney          .         .         .  .         .         .       135 

Destruction  of  a  British  Tender  by  a  Torpedo          .        .       141 
Stationary  Torpedo        .......       166 

Fulton's  first  American  Steamboat  .         .        .         .179 

Blanchard's  Engine  for  turning  irregular  forms        ,         .       203 

Eddystone  Bond .         .       225 

Eddystone  Lighthouse  in  a  Storm 227 

Hall-in-the-wood,  near  Bolton      *  .  .        .         .251 

Arkwright's  first  Cotton  Factory  at  Cromford  .         .         .266 
Aqueduct  over  the  Irwell        .         .         .  '  .         .       307 

Menai  Suspension  Bridge       .         .        .        .  .       333 

The  Hydrostatic  Press  .         .        .        .        .         .351 

Progress  of  Invention  illustrated      ....       353,  354 

Wooden  Pavement 367 

Spinning-wheel  of  India          ......       372 

Hindoos  weaving .      373 


12 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Longitudinal  Section  of  Thames  Tunnel,  showing  its  course 
under  the  river  ....... 

Longitudinal  Section  of  Thames  Tunnel,  with  an  end  view 
of  the  Shield 

Cross  Section  of  Thames  Tunnel,  showing  the  arrange, 
ment  of  the  masonry  ...... 

The  Balsa     . 

Chinese  Irrigation  Wheel 

Croton  Aqueduct 


PAGE 

434 
434 

439 

448 
469 
478 


PORTRAITS. 


Benjamin  Franklin 
Oliver  Evans    .     . 
Samuel  Slater  .     . 
Eli  Whitney    .     . 
Amos  Whittemore 
Robert  Fulton 
Jacob  Perkins 
Thomas  Blanchard 
John  Smeaton  . 


PAGE 

PAGE 

36 

231 

69 

James  Ferguson    .     . 

.     236 

84 

Samuel  Crompton 

.     248 

100 

Richard  Arkwright    . 

.     259 

146 

James  Watt     .     .     . 

.     278 

157 

James  Brindley     .     . 

.     299 

189 

Stanhope     .... 

319 

196 

Matthew  Boulton  .     . 

.     326 

218 

John  Whitehurst  .     . 

.     343 

AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 


JOHN  FITCH, 

AN  EARLY  STEAMBOAT  INVENTOR. 


ivention  all  admired,  and  each  how  he 
s  the  inventor  missed ;  so  easy  it  seemec 
found,  which  yet  unfound,  most  would 
Impossible."  MILTON. 


Who  invented  the  first  steamboat? — Early  experimenters  in  steam. — Blasco 
de  Garay. — Jonathan  Hulls. — Fitch's  manuscript. — Birth. — Character  of  his 
parents. — Loses  his  mother. — Juvenile  heroism. — Mother-in-law. — Schoolboy 
days. — Becomes  a  great  arithmetician. — Father's  austerity. — Hears  of  a  won- 
derfid  book. — Great  thirst  for  knowledge. — Self-denial  and  industry. — Makes 
a  purchase. — Becomes  a  great  geographer. — Father  purchases  him  scale  and 
dividers. — Great  joy  thereat. — Studies  surveying. — Surveys  with  the  governor, 
and  paid  in  glory. — Leaves  school  for  the  farm. — Brother's  tyranny. — Desires 
to  study  astronomy. — Relaxes  from  studious  habits. — Embarks  as  a  cabin-boy 
in  a  coaster. — Cruel  treatment. — Leaves,  and  enters  another. — Makes  a  short 
voyage. — Returns. — Accidental  meeting  with  a  clockmaker. — Wishes  to  enter 
his  service. — Selfish  opposition  of  his  parents. — Kindness  of  his  brother-in- 
law. — Enters  •  the  clockmaker's  service. — His  neglect. — Leaves  in  ignorance 
of  his  profession. — Enters  the  service  of  a  clockmaker  and  watch  repairer. — 
Gross  injustice. — Leaves. — New  employment,  and  success. — A  change,  and 
misfortune. — Marries. — Unhappy  life. — Abandons  his  wife. — Wanders. — Visits 
the  Jerseys. — Sickly  appearance  a  prevention  to  obtaining  employment  as  a 
day  laborer. — Turns  button-maker. — Revolutionary  war. — Repairs  arms  for  the 
continental  army. — Employed  in  Kentucky  as  a  surveyor. — Taken  prisoner  by 
the  Indians,  and  carried  into  captivity. — Release. — Returns  to  the  east. — First 
idea  of  a  steamboat. — Curious  reflections. — Dr.  Thornton's  account  of  his  ex- 
periments.— Note, — Biographical  Sketch  of  Rumsey. — Description  of  Fitch's 
boat. — Goes  out  to  France. — Return. — Misfortunes. — Generosity  of  a  relation. 
— Visits  Kentucky. — Better  prospects. — Death. 

"  WHO  invented  the  steamboat  ?"  is  a  question  which  has  ex- 
cited great  controversy, — an  achievement  of  which  nations  as 
well  as  individuals  have  been  covetous. 

Several  of  the  early  experimenters  in  steam  appear  to  have 
conceived  of  the  idea.  The  first  account  we  have  on  the  subject 
is  given  in  a  work  recently  published  in  Spain,  containing  original 
papers  relating  to  the  voyage  of  Columbus,  said  to  have  been  pre- 

2 


14  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

served  in  the  royal  archives  at  Samancas,  and  among  the  public 
papers  of  Catalonia  and  those  of  the  secretary  at  war  for  the  yeai 
1543.  This  narrative  states  that  "  Blasco  de  Garay,  a  sea  cap- 
tain,  exhibited  to  the  emperor  and  king  Charles  V.,  in  the  year 
1543,  an  engine  by  which  ships  and  vessels  of  the  largest  size 
could  be  propelled,  even  in  a  calm,  without  the  aid  of  oars  or  sails. 
Notwithstanding  the  opposition  which  this  project  encountered, 
the  emperor  resolved  that  an  experiment  should  be  made,  as  in 
fact  it  was,  with  success,  in  the  harbor  of  Barcelona,  on  the  17th 
of  June,  1543.  Garay  never  publicly  exposed  the  construction  of 
his  engine,  but  it  was  observed  at  the  time  of  his  experiment,  that 
it  consisted  of  a  large  caldron  or  vessel  of  boiling  water,  and  a 
moveable  wheel  attached  to  each  side  of  the  ship.  The  experi- 
ment was  made  on  a  ship  of  209  tons,  arrived  from  Calibre,  to 
discharge  a  cargo  of  wheat  at  Barcelona ;  it  was  called  the  Tri- 
nity, and  the  captain's  name  was  Peter  de  Scarza.  By  order  of 
Charles  V.  and  the  prince  Philip  the  Second,  his  son,  there  were 
present  at  the  time,  Henry  de  Toledo,  the  governor,  Peter  Car- 
dona,  the  treasurer,  Ravago,  the  vice-chancellor,  Francis  Gralla, 
and  many  other  persons  of  rank,  both  Castilians  and  Catalonians ; 
and  among  others,  several  sea  captains  witnessed  the  operation, 
some  in  the  vessel,  and  others  on  the  shore.  The -emperor  and 
prince,  and  others  with  them,  applauded  the  engine,  and  especially 
the  expertness  with  which  the  ship  could  be  tacked.  The  trea- 
surer Ravago,  an  enemy  to  the  project,  said  it  would  move  two 
leagues  in  three  hours.  It  was  very  complicated  and  expensive, 
and  exposed  to  the  constant  danger  of  bursting  the  boiler.  The 
other  commissioners  affirmed,  that  the  vessel  could  be  tacked 
twice  as  quick  as  a  galley  served  by  the  common  method,  and 
that  at  its  slowest  rate  it  would  move  a  league  in  an  hour.  The 
exhibition  being  finished,  Garay  took  from  the  ship  his  engine, 
and  having  deposited  the  wood  work  in  the  arsenal  of  Barcelona, 
kept  the  rest  to  himself.  Notwithstanding  the'  difficulties  and 
opposition  thrown  in  the  way  by  Ravago,  the  invention  was  ap- 
proved ;  and  if  the  expedition  in  which  Charles  V.  was  then 
engaged  had  not  failed,  it  would  undoubtedly  have  been  favored 
by  him.  As  it  was,  he  raised  Garay  to  a  higher  station,  gave 
him  a  sum  of  money  (200,000  maravedies)  as  a  present,  ordered 
all  the  expenses  of  the  experiment  to  be  paid  out  of  the  general 
treasury,  and  conferred  upon  him  other  rewards." 

The  editor  of  the  Franklin  Journal,  from  which  this  extract  has 
been  made,  observes,  "  when  the  *  Public  Records '  shall  appear 
in  an  authentic  form,  their  evidence  must  be  admitted  ;  until  then 
he  should  not  be  inclined  to  commence  the  history  of  the  inven- 


JOHN  FITCH.  15 

tion  of  the  steamboat  so  far  back  as  1543.  For  circumstantial  as 
the  account  is,  it  seems  to  have  been  written  since  the  days  of 
Fulton." 

He  is  not1  alone  in  this  opinion,  as  it  is  universally  regarded 
as  a  mere  fiction,  the  offspring  of  an  individual  jealous  of  his 
country's  reputation. 

The  most  prominent  and  authentic  account  of  the  early  projects 
of  applying  steam  as  a  motive  power  to  the  propelling  of  vessels, 
is  given  in  a  treatise  printed  in  London  in  1737,  entitled  "  De- 
scription and  draught  of  a  new-invented  machine,  for  carrying 
vessels  out  of,  or  into  any  harbor,  port,  or  river,  against  wind  and 
tide  or  in  a  calm  :  for  which  his  majesty  George  II.  has  granted 
letters  patent  for  the  sole  benefit  of  the  author,  for  the  space  of 
fourteen  years ;  by  Jonathan  Hulls."  The  draught  or  drawing 
prefixed  is  a  plate  of  a  stout  boat  with  chimney  smoking,  a  pair 
of  wheels  rigged  out  over  each  side  of  the  stern,  moved  by  means 
of  ropes  passing  round  their  outer  rims  ;  and  to  the  axis  of  these 
wheels  are  fixed  six  paddles  to  propel  the  boat.  From  the  stem 
of  the  boat  a  tow-line  passes  to  the  foremast  of  a  two-decker, 
which  the  boat  thus  tows  through  the  water.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence that  Hulls  ever  applied  his  conceptions  to  practice. 

Since  that  time,  down  to  the  period  of  the  great  and  successful 
experiments  of  Fulton,  several  attempts  were  made  here  and  in 
Europe,  with  varied  success.  Among  the  most,  if  not  the  most 
conspicuous,  were  those  made  by  the  subject  of  this  article. 

A  few  years  previous  to  his  death,  Fitch  prepared  a  memoir  of 
himself,  including  a  history  of  his  experiments  in  steam.  These 
papers  were  bequeathed  to  the  Franklin  Library  of  Philadelphia, 
with  directions  that  they  should  be  unsealed  and  perused  thirty 
years  from  the  time  of  his  decease.  At  the  appointed  period  they 
were  opened,  and  found  to  contain  a  very  full  account  of  his  life, 
particularly  of  that  portion  which  related  to  his  experiments  in 
steam,  including  the  progress  of  his  operations  from  the  time  the 
thought  first  occurred  to  him,  until  the  completion  of  the  boat  so 
far  as  to  make  numerous  experiments  on  the  Delaware, — the  sub- 
sequent alterations  made,  and  the  final  abandonment  of  the  scheme 
by  the  original  stockholders. 

These  manuscripts  show  but  one  tissue  of  discouragements  and 
perplexities,  and  prove  him  to  have  been  a  strong-minded  but  un- 
lettered man,  with  a  perseverance  almost  unexampled,  and  a  de- 
termination to  let  no  difficulty  in  the  execution  of  his  plan  prevent 
him  from  endeavoring  to  bring  it  to  perfection,  so  long  as  the 
shareholders  furnished  the  means  of  defraying  the  expenses. 
Indeed,  disappointment  and  oppression  appear  to  have  borne  him 


16  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

company  from  his  veiy  youth ;  and,  as  he  himself  remarks,  it  is 
the  history  of  one  of  the  most  "  singular"  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  "  unfortunate  men  in  the  world  /" 

From  this  narrative  we  shall  make  liberal  quotations,  especially 
from  that  portion  relating  to  his  younger  days.  It  is  the  incidents 
of  youth  that  give  a  tone  and  direction  to  character.  We  can 
all  of  us  refer  to  some  of  the  most  apparently  trivial  events  of 
earlier  years  that  have  completely  changed  the  whole  current  of 
our  thoughts  and  pursuits.  In  the  memoir  before  us  there  can 
be  traced,  with  a  minuteness  uncommon  even  in  biography,  those 
circumstances  which  moulded  his  strong  mind  into  its  peculiar 
model ;  and  we  can  there  perceive  the  origin  of  that  misanthropical 
cast  of  thought, — that  eccentricity  of  character  and  that  looseness 
of  sentiment  in  regard  to  concerns  of  a  serious  nature,  which  so 
strongly  marked  the  author  of  its  pages. 

This  memoir  is  addressed  to  the  "  worthy  Nathaniel  Irwin,  of 
Neshamoney,"  in  Pennsylvania,  a  clergyman  and  a  gentleman  of 
whose  talents  and  kindness  of  disposition  Fitch  had  formed  the 
highest  estimate,  and  who,  it  appears,  once  requested  him  to  pre- 
pare something  of  the  kind.  The  principal  reason  which  Fitch 
gives  for  complying  with  this  request  was,  that  his  life  had  been 
filled  with  such  a  variety  of  changes,  affording  such  useful  lessons 
to  mankind,  that  he  considered  it  a  neglect  of  duty  were  he  to 
suppress  it. 

"  The  21st  of  January,  1743,  old  style,"  says  he,  "  was  the 
fatal  time  of  bringing  me  into  existence.  The  house  I  was  born 
in  was  upon  the  line  between  Hartford  and  Windsor  (Connecticut.) 
It  was  said  I  was  born  in  Windsor  ;*  but  from  the  singularity  of 
my  make,  shape,  disposition,  and  fortune  in  the  world,  I  am  in. 
clined  to  believe  that  it  was  the  design  of  Heaven  that  I  should  be 
born  on  the  very  line,  and  not  in  any  township  whatever ;  yet  am 
happy  also  that  it  did  not  happen  between  two  states,  that  I  can 
say  I  was  born  somewhere." 

Fitch's  father  .was  a  farmer  in  good  circumstances.  His  be- 
setting sin  seems  to  have  consisted  in  a  want  of  generosity .  in 
pecuniary  affairs, — so  much  so  that  his  son  observes,  "  I  presume 
he  never  spent  five  shillings  at  a  tavern  during  the  whole  course 
of  his  life."  This,  in  our  day,  would  be  considered  as  a  very 
singular  and  inapt  illustration  of  that  trait  of  disposition  ;  but  when 
we  remember  the  customs  of  society  at  that  period,  and  the  total 
deprivation  of  every  thing  like  "  amusement,"  inseparable  from 
the  isolated  condition  of  agriculturists,  we  shall  comprehend  some- 

*  Now  East  Windsor. 


JOHN   FITCH.  17 

thing  like  the  spirit  of  the  allusion.  Still,  his  parent  appears  to 
have  been  a  good  provider ;  for  he  goes  on  to  state,  "  we  always 
had  plenty  of  victuals  and  drink  in  the  house.  In  the  whole  course 
of  my  acquaintance  with  him,  I  never  knew  him  out  of  cider  but 
about  two  weeks,  and  never  out  of  pickled  pork.  Our  victuals 
were  coarse,  but  wholesome,  such  as  pork  and  beans,  codfish  and 
potatoes,  hasty  pudding  and  milk,"  and,  what  was  particularly 
valued,  "  always  a  stout  hasty  pudding  after  dinner."  His  pa- 
rents  had  five  children,  two  sons  and  two  daughters,  besides  the 
"  unfortunate  John" 

"  From  the  time  of  my  birth,"  says  he,  "  until  I  was  five  years 
of  age,  nothing  material  happened  to  me  that  I  can  recollect,  any 
more  than  crawling  along  the  floor  and  picking  ants  out  of  the 
cracks,  and  now  and  then  catching  a  fly,  which  made  as  lively 
impression  on  my  mind,  as  great,  perhaps,  as  the  Trojan  war  on 
the  minds  of  heroes." 

"  When  I  was  four  years  old  I  went  to  school :  I  know  from 
the  circumstance  that  my  mistress  used  to  ask  me  how  my  mother 
was,  and  she  died  when  I  was  five  years  old.  I  recollect  that  I 
learned  to  spell  the  first  summer  before  my  mother's  death,  whilst 
I  went  to  Mrs.  Rockwell.  I  remember  frequently  spelling  there 
without  the  book  the  words  commandment,  Jerusalem,  &c.  But 
soon  the  fatal  day  arrived  when  my  mother's  guardianship  should 
be  taken  from  me,  and  early  in  the  fall  I  was  deprived  of  her. 
Although  I  did  not  consider  my  loss,  natural  affection  carried  my 
griefs  to  a  very  great  excess  for  a  child  of  my  age."  He  here, 
and  frequently  elsewhere,  speaks  of  his  mother  with  regard,  and 
no  doubt  her  loss  proved  injurious  to  him.  She  was  a  kind  and 
affectionate  woman,  without  those  disagreeable  traits  which  marked 
the  character  of  his  other  parent. 

"  When  about  six  years  of  age,"  he  remarks,  "  a  most  extra- 
ordinary  circumstance  happened  to  me,  worthy  of  the  notice  of  a 
Roman  soldier."  Returning  from  school  about  dusk  one  day,  he 
found  no  one  in  the  house  except  a  little  sister,  his  second  brother 
being  in  the  barn  yard  holding  a  "  wicked  cow "  for  his  eldest 
sister  to  milk.  This  little  sister  being  anxious  to  show  him  a 
present  which  she  had  received  during  the  day,  it  being  too  dark 
to  see  without,  lighted  a  candle  to  find  it.  Unfortunately,  in  her 
search  she  set  fire  to  two  large  bundles  of  flax  standing  in  a  dis- 
tant corner  of  the  room*  which  young  Fitch  no  sooner  observed, 
than,  with  a  presence  of  mind  truly  wonderful  in  a  child  so  young, 
he  ran  and  seized  one  of  the  blazing  bundles,  which  was  more  than 
he  was  enabled  to  lift  without  resting  it  upon  his  knees,  carried  it 
to  the  hearth,  and  threw  it  down.  In  so  doing  he  blistered  his 

2* 


18  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

hands  and  set  his  hair  in  a  blaze,  but,  smothering  the  fire  on  his 
head  with  his  naked  hands,  he  sprang  and  grasped  the  other 
bundle  and  brought  it  to  the  same  place,  blistering  his  hands  and 
setting  his  head  on  fire  the  second  time,  and  putting  it  out  in  like 
manner.  Having  done  this,  he  jumped  upon  the  bundles  until  the 
fire  was  extinguished*  "  In  the  mean  time,"  he  says,  "  whilst  I 
was  thus  occupied,  my  little  sister  Chloe  being  frightened,  ran  to 
the  barn  yard,  and  probably  told  my  brother  some  improper  story. 
When  I  had  the  fire  put  out,  notwithstanding  my  painful  hands 
and  smarting  face,  which  was  then  covered  with  blisters,  I  went 
to  relate  the  tale  to  my  elder  brother  ;  but  no  sooner  did  I  arrive 
in  the  yard  than  he  fell  foul  of  me,  boxing  my  ears  and  beating 
me  beyond  reason  for  the  greatest  fault,  and  would  not  give  me 
leave  to  say  a  word  in  my  behalf.  As  my  father  had  that  evening- 
gone  a  courting,  I  had  nowhere  to  apply  to  for  redress,  therefore 
was  obliged  not  only  to  submit  to  the  greatest  indignities,  but  to 
the  greatest  injustice.  On  his  return  I  made  complaints,  but  with- 
out satisfaction  or  redress.  This  being  what  I  may  call  the  first 
act  of  my  life,  seemed  to  forebode  the  future  rewards  that  I  was 
to  receive  for  my  labors  through  it,  which  has  generally  corre- 
sponded with  that." 

When  he  was  about  seven  years  old,  his  father  married  "  one 
Abigail  Church,"  whom  he  describes  as  being  an  orderly,  easy- 
tempered  old  maid  of  forty,  possessing  sense  sufficient  to  manage 
the  affairs  of  the  house. 

"  My  father,"  he  continues,  "  kept  me  constantly  at  school  until 
I  was  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  as  my  schooling  cost  him  nothing. 
When  the  weather  was  too  bad  to  go  to  school,  he  had  goodness 
enough  to  encourage  my  learning  my  book  at  home,  and  would 
frequently  teach  me.  Before  I  was  ten  years  old  I  could  say  the 
New  England  Primer  all  by  heart,  from  Adam's  fall  to  the  end  of 
the  catechism.  But  the  most  surprising  thing  of  my  learning  ap- 
pears to  me  to  be  this :  My  father  had  an  old  arithmetic  book  in 
the  house,  by  one  Hodder,  with  the  old-fashioned  division  in  it. 
I  was  able  at  nine  years  of  age  to  make  figures  pretty  well,  as 
well  as  to  write  a  legible  hand.  Whenever  I  had  a  minute's  lei- 
sure I  would  have  that  book  in  my  hand,  and  learned  myself  out 
of  it  the  true  principles  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division ;  and  the  year  that  I  was  nine  years  of  age,  could 
tell  how  many  minutes  old  I  should  be  when  I  should  have  seen 
ten  years,  but  was  not  able  to  multiply  the  figure  nine  :  this  I  did 
in  the  presence  of  four  or  five  neighbors  one  rainy  day,  to  their 
admiration.  When  about  eight  years  of  age,  my  father  took  me 
from  school,  and  set  me  to  work  in  the  most  serious  and  diligent 


JOHN  FITCH.  19 

*t. 

manner,  although  I  was  exceedingly  small  of  my  age,  and  scarcely 
able  to  swingle  more  than  two  pounds  of  flax,  or  thresh  more  than 
two  bushels  of  grain,  with  the  steadiness  of  a  man  of  thirty  years 
for  that  trifling,  pitiful  labor.  I  was  prevented  from  going  to  school 
more  than  one  month  in  the  winter,  when  he  saw  that  I  was  nearly 
crazy  after  learning,  and  then  I  was  always  obliged  to  leave  before 
it  was  out  to  come  home  to  help  him  fodder." 

"  My  father  was  one  of  the  most  strenuous  of  the  sect  of  Pres- 
byterians, and  a  bigot,  which  he  carried  to  such  excess  that  I  dare 
not  go  into  the  garden  to  pick  currants  or  into  the  orchard  to  get 
apples  on  the  sabbath.  I  really  believe  that  he  thought  it  the 
extent  of  his  duty  toward  me  to  learn  me  to  read  the  Bible,  that  I 
might  find  the  way  to  heaven  ;  when  he  had  done  that  he  felt  per- 
fectly  easy,  and  if  I  could  earn  him  twopence  per  day  it  ought  not 
to  be  lost.  It  may  be  irreverent  for  me  thus  to  speak  as  I  have 
done  of  a  parent,  but  I  mean  to  communicate  the  truth  to  you,  and 
in  as  particular  a  manner  as  I  can."  Without  apologizing  for  the 
unnatural  language  of  Fitch  in  thus  speaking  of  a  parent,  we  can 
perceive  in  that  austerity  and  scrupulous  observance  of  the  mere 
outward  forms  of  religion  which  he  evinced,  without  being  suffi- 
ciently guided  by  its  true  spirit  to  act  generously  and  fairly  by 
those  around  him,  the  origin  of  that  infidelity  of  sentiment  which 
formed  so  striking  a  feature  in  the  character  of  his  son. 

"  But  notwithstanding,"  continues  Fitch,  "  he  suppressed  me 
from  going  to  school,  he  did  not  hinder  me  from  studying  such 
books  as  he  had ;  and  at  noontimes  and  evenings,  instead  of  play- 
ing, as  is  common  with  boys  of  that  age,  I  was  as  studious  as  the 
most  zealous  student  under  the  eyes  of  a  tutor,  and,  in  particular, 
in  Hodder's  Arithmetic,  which  went  as  far  as  Alligation  Alternate. 
When  I  was  eleven  years  old,  I  heard  of  a  book  that  would  give 
me  a  knowledge  of  the  whole  world,  which  was  Salmon's  Geog- 
raphy. I  repeatedly  requested  my  father  to  get  it  for  me,  but  to 
no  purpose.  J  then  proposed  to  him  to  give  me  some  headlands 
at  the  end  of  a  field  to  plant  potatoes,  which  he  granted,  and  I  dug 
it  up  by  hand  on  a  holy  day."  This  holy  day  was  .the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  militia  of  the  state.  Every  reader  who  can  recollect  in 
the  times  of  his  boyhood  how  delightfully  the  old  distich, 

41  First  Monday  in  May 
Is  training  day," 

used  to  sound  in  his  ears,  when  he  looked  forward  in  anticipation 
to  the  glories  of  that  jubilee,  can  form  some  idea  of  the  thirst  for 
knowledge  which  young  Fitch  here  evinced  in  denying  himself  a 
participation  in  its  pleasures.  Having  thus  prepared  the  land,  he 


20  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

planted  it  with  •  potatoes,  cultivating  them  at  noontimes  and  at 
evenings,  after  the  labors  of  the  day  were  over.  He  says,  "  I 
raised  several  bushels,  and  in  the  fall  sold  them,  and  got  ten  shil- 
lings in  money,  and  went  to  a  merchant  in  the  neighborhood  who 
dealt  in  New  York,  who  promised  me  to  get  the  book,  and  fulfilled 
his  promise.  But  the  book  cost  twelve  shillings,  and  I  was  two 
shillings  in  debt,  which  gave  me  a  great  deal  of  uneasiness.  By 
some  means,  I  do  not  recollect  how,  I  soon  discharged  it,  but  was 
obliged  to  return  the  seed  to  my  father  in  the  fall. 

"  What  makes  me  pretty  sure  it  happened  when  I  was  eleven 
years  of  age,  is  this :  it  was  about  one  year  after  I  planted  the 
potatoes  before  I  got  the  book,  and  I  learned  surveying  that  winter 
I  was  thirteen  years  of  age,  and  when  I  learned  that,  I  presume  I 
was  the  best  geographer  of  the  world,  that  Connecticut  could  pro- 
duce, according  to  Salmon,  at  that  time.  No  question  could  be 
asked  me  of  any  nation,  but  I  would  tell  their  number,  religion, 
their  latitude  and  longitude,  and  turn  at  once  to  any  town  marked 
on  the  maps,  which  could  not  be  acquired  in  less  than  in  about 
one  year,  considering  the  small  opportunities  I  had  of  studying, 
which  was  only  in  the  intervals  of  hard  labor  and  times  for  rest. 

"  My  father  never  allowed  me  to  go  to  school  more  than  one 
month  in  a  year,  except  that  winter  I  was  thirteen  years  of  age, 
when  he  permitted  me  to  go  about  five  or  six  weeks.  After  I  had 
got  through  with  common  arithmetic,  my  master  told  me  in  public 
school  that  he  could  learn  me  no  farther  in  arithmetic,  but,  if  I 
chose,  he  would  learn  me  surveying.  I  so  earnestly  insisted  on 
my  father  to  indulge  me  in  this,  that  he  could  not  resist  my  en- 
treaties, and  went  to  Hartford  and  got  a  scale  and  a  pair  of 
dividers,  and  on  his  return  I  never  felt  a  greater  sense  of  grati- 
tude to  mortal  man  than  I  did  to  him  at  that  time,  and  in  tw© 
weeks  learned  what  we  called  surveying  in  New  England.  I  knew 
no  better,  but  thought  myself  perfect  master,  but  learned  nothing 
of  logarithms,  or  of  calculation  by  latitude  and  departure,  only 
geometrically.  As  I  had  learned  common  arithmetic  out  of  school 
by  myself,  I  had  but  little  to  do  while  there,  only  to  go  through 
what  I  had  really  learned,  except  division,  which  took  me  about 
half  a  day  to  learn  the  different  mode  before  I  could  be  ready 
at  it." 

"  My  father  had  meadow  lands  adjoining  the  governor  of  the 
colony.  He  frequently  came  under  the  shade  with  us  in  mowing 
time ;  and  seeing  me  a  little,  forward  boy,  one  day  requested  my 
father  to  let  me  go  to  carry  the  chain  with  him,  to  measure  off 
some  small  parcels.  His  request  was  easily  granted,  as  is  com. 
mon  for  poor  men  to  exert  themselves  to.  oblige  the  great.  This 


JOHN  FITCH.  -21 

happened  when  I  was  about  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age.  In  this 
undertaking  the  governor  was  exceedingly  familiar  with  me,  and 
would  consult  me  on  the  most  minute  part  of  the  business  as  much 
as  if  I  had  been  an  able  counsellor,  and  as  if  he  knew  nothing  of 
the  business  himself.  I  was  equally  proud  of  his  company,  and 
as  officious  as  I  could  be  to  render  him  every  service." 

"  We  could  not  finish  the  surveying  that  evening,  but  left,  I 
believe,  seven  or  eight  acres  when  we  quit.  He  left  the  chain, 
and  gave  me  directions  how  to  lay  it  off  for  sundry  people  ;  I  being 
proud  of  the  office,  readily  accepted  it,  and  executed  it  faithfully. 
Some  time  after,  the  governor  called  at -my  father's  house  for  the 
chain ;  I  fetched  it  to  him  with  the  greatest  expedition,  and  ex- 
pectation of  some  pennies,  when  he  took  it,  put  it  in  his  saddle- 
bags, and  rode  off  without  saying  a  word  !  My  mortification  at 
this  time  was  nearly  equal  to  the  usage  I  met  with  in  extinguish- 
ing the  fire  in  my  father's  house  ;  yet  I  am  persuaded  the  governor 
was  an  honest  man,  but  concluded  within  himself  that  the  honor 
would  fully  compensate  me." 

On  leaving  school,  Fitch's  whole  time  was  devoted  to  the  labors 
of  the  farm.  His  duties  were  so  very  severe,  that  he  expresses 
an  opinion  that  it  "  stunted  him,"  and  prevented  his  growth  for 
several  years.  Independent  of  the  severity  of  his  father  in  thus 
keeping  him  so  hard  at  work,  he  was  subject  to  the  tyranny  of  an 
elder  brother,  who  sought  every  opportunity  to  oppress  him  and 
crush  his  spirits,  cruelly  compelling  him  to  such  an  exertion  in 
his  labors  that  he  was  often  "  ready  to  faint,"  and  speaking 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  put  him  in  continual  apprehension  of  a 
beating.  "  For  this  treatment,"  says  he,  "  I  do  not  thank  my 
unfeeling  father  and  tyrant  brother ;  and  although  I  have  not  seen 
him  for  twenty  years,  would  not  go  to  the  nearest  neighbor's  to 
see  him,  unless  he  was  in  distress.  Could  I  be  set  into  a  Virginia 
field  amongst  their  slaves,  with  the  severest  driver  at  my  back,  I 
would  sooner  engage  in  it  than  go  through  the  same  again." 

In  speaking  of  an  almost  miraculous  escape  from  injury  in 
falling  from  a  tree  which  happened  about  this  period,  he  observes, 
"  it  seems  heaven  designed  me  for  some  more  cruel  fate." 

While  on  the  farm,  young  Fitch  was  extremely  desirous  to 
study  astronomy,  and  in  vain  solicited  his  father  to  procure  the 
necessary  works ;  but,  in  some  degree  from  the  severity  of  his 
duties,  partly  from  the  want  of  books,  and  having  already  attained 
a  greater  amount  of  learning  than  any  of  his  neighbors,  he  con- 
tinues, "  I  imperceptibly  left  my  studies,  and  fell  into  the  common 
practices  of  boys  in  our  neighborhood,  and  devoted  myself  to  play, 
when  I  could  steal  a  minute,  as  much  as  I  had  before  to  my  books. 


22  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

This  helped  to  sweeten  life ;  and  from  the  time  I  was  thirteen 
and  fourteen  years  of  age  until  I  went  apprentice,  I  enjoyed  my- 
self as  well  as  most  of  the  Virginia  slaves,  who  have  liberty  to  go 
to  a  dance  once  a  week." 

"  During  that  time  there  was  nothing  material  happened  to  me. 
I  seemed  to  be  beloved  both  by  old  and  young,  as  I  could  speak 
rationally  to  the  old,  and  was  always  foremost  among  my  play- 
fellows.'^ 

When  about  seventeen  years  of  age,  Fitch  was  anxious  to  learn 
some  trade  or  go  to  sea,  by  which  he  "  could  make  a  living  when 
he  came  to  himself."  He  expressed  these  views  to  his  father,  at 
the  same  time  representing  that  he  was  too  small  and  weak  to 
obtain  a  support  by  agricultural  employments.  His  parent  re- 
luctantly consented.  In  the  following  September  the  steeple  to 
the  village  church  was  raised.  This,  was  indeed  a  gala  day,  and 
the  people  from  Hartford  and  the  whole  country  round  flocked  to 
witness  this  then  uncommon  spectacle.  Although,  as  he  tells  us, 
he  had  "  a  singular  curiosity  in  witnessing  mechanical  operations," 
yet  was  determined  to  forego  the  pleasure,  and  borrowed  a  horse 
for  the  purpose  of  visiting  Rocky  Hill,  a  parish  in  Wethersfield, 
where  there  were  a  great  number  of  coasters.  The  object  of  this 
visit  was  to  engage  a  berth  for  a  short  voyage,  to  settle' his  opinion 
as  to  the  propriety  of  learning  a  trade  or  becoming  a  seaman. 

A  place  was  first  engaged  on  board  of  a  sloop  bound  to  New 
York,  "  under  one  Captain  Abbott."  This  situation  was  found 
very  disagreeable.  The  master  treated  him  with  brutality ;  and 
although  there  were  plenty  of  empty  berths,  he  was  compelled  by 
the  mate  Starr,  to  lie  upon  deck  on  a  chest,  much  too  short,  and 
this,  too,  without  any  covering.  Such  usage  was  considered  "  ex- 
tremely hard,  after  having  been  used  to  a  comfortable  bed  at 
home." 

An  occasion  offering  a  day  or  two  subsequent,  he  left  and  went 
on  board  of  a  Providence  sloop.  Here  things  were  found  very 
comfortable,  and  although  not  in  accordance  to  stipulation,  Fitch 
evinced  such  zeal  and  industry  that  his  master  paid  him  wages, 
and  he  made  a  "  saving  voyage."  "  I  returned  home,"  says  he, 
"  neither  enamoured  with  the  sea  nor  resolved  against  it,  and  in 
as  much  of  a  quandary  how  to  dispose  of  myself  as  ever." 

Accident,  however,  soon  threw  him  in  the  way  of  a  neighboring 
clockmaker,  who  proposed  to  him  to  enter  into  his  service.  On 
expressing  to  his  parents  his  desire  to  learn  the  business,  they 
strenuously  opposed  his  wishes,  and  this,  too,  without  any  regard 
to  their  son's  welfare,  but  merely  from  a  selfish  unwillingness  to 
dispense  with  his  services  on  the  farm,  which  had  then  become 


JOHN  FITCH.  23 

quite  valuable.  Their  opposition  came  near  frustrating  the  plan. 
On  mentioning  his  troubles  to  his  sister  and  her  husband,  Mr. 
Timothy  King,  although  poor,  they  offered  to  advance  the  neces- 
sary funds.  Fitch  says,  "  these  two  persons  were  the  greatest 
ornament  that  ever  adorned  my  father's  family.  My  sister  was 
the  most  mannerly,  generous-spirited  woman  that  I  ever  saw,  not 
only  to  me,  but  to  others,  and  probably  might  take  it  in  some 
manner  from  her  husband,  as  good  wives  endeavor  to  recommend 
themselves  to  their  husbands  by  adopting  their  sentiments."  Other 
obstacles  were  thrown  in  his  way,  but  he  successfully  overcame 
them. 

He  describes  the  clockmaker  as  an  eccentric  man,  and  possess- 
ing some  genius.  According  to  agreement,  Fitch  was  to  work 
seven  months  in  the  year  in  the  out-door  concerns  of  his  employer, 
— the  remainder  of  the  time  to  devote  to  the  pursuit  of  the  art  and 
mysteries  of  wooden  clock-making.  But  his  master  by  no  means 
acted  in  conformity  to  contract,  keeping  his  apprentice  almost 
continually  in  attendance  upon  his  domestic  concerns  ;  and  even 
during  the  small  portion  of  the  time  he  was  employed  in  the  shop, 
so  neglected  to  instruct  him,  that  at  the  expiration  of  two  years 
and  a  half,  Fitch  left  almost  entirely  ignorant  of  his  profession. 

After  this  he  went  to  work  with  a  brother  of  his  former  em. 
ployer,  who  was  engaged  in  a  similar  business,  and  who  unitec 
with  the  manufacture  of  clocks  the  repairing  of  watches.  This 
latter  art  it  was  especially  stipulated  should  be  taught  his  new  ap- 
prentice ;  he  not  only  omitted  to  do  it,  but  took  particular  pains 
to  prevent  his  learning,  working  himself  in  a  distant  part  of  the 
room,  locking  up  his  tools  when  absent,  and  forbidding  Fitch  ever 
to  touch  them.  Fitch  was  ajways  kept  busy  on  some  unimportant 
part,  so  that  during  the  eight  months  he  was  in  this  person's  ser- 
vice, he  never  even  saw  a  watch  taken  to  pieces  or  put  together, 
and,  in  fact,  had  no  opportunity  of  obtaining  any  insight  of  the 
subject  whatever.  Nor  did  oppression  end  here ;  "  although," 
he  observes,  "  I  possessed  a  small  appetite,  I  never  was  given 
sufficient  to  satisfy  it,  except  on  one  occasion,  when  I  managed 
to  make  a  good,  hearty  meal  on  potatoes.  Being  an  inferior,  I 
was  helped  last  at  the  table ;  the  females  would  then  discourse 
upon  gluttony,  and  my  master,  hastily  devouring  his  own  food, 
would  immediately  return  thanks  for  that  which  himself  and  others 
eat,  as  well  as  for  that  which  his  apprentice  did  not."  Fitch 
was  kept  very  hard  and  steady  at  work  from  before  sunrise  in 
winter  until  ten  o'clock  at  night,  and  as  many  hours  during  the 
summer,  with,  however,  one  single  exception, — this  was  on  the 
occasion  of  the  sickness  and  death  of  his  master's  child,  when 


24  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

he  was  obliged  to  walk  six  miles  for  a  physician.  Shortly  after 
his  return  the  child  died.  "  During  the  night,"  says  he,  "  I 
watched  with  the  corpse,  with  the  privilege  of  as  much  water 
from  the  well  as  I  desired,  by  way  of  refreshment." 

On  leaving  his  last  employer,  he  dared  not  set  up  the  business 
on  his  own  account,  or  work  as  a  journeyman,  for  fear  of  exhibit- 
ing his  ignorance,  but  employed  himself,  as  he  tells  us,  "  in  doing 
small  brass  work."  This  was  pursued  by  him  with  so  much  in- 
dustry,  that  at  the  end  of  two  years  he  found  himself  worth  fifty 
pounds,  which  for  him,  considering  the  scarcity  of  money  at  the 
time,  was  viewed  as  "  quite  a  treasure,"  and  enabled  him  to  pay 
off  his  debts,  and  have  something  "handsome  left."  Fitch  after- 
wards  entered  into  the  potash  business,  but  was  unsuccessful  in 
its  prosecution,  arising  partially  from  the  unfaithfulness  of  one  of 
his  partners.  While  thus  engaged,  he  married  Miss  Lucy  Ro- 
berts, on  29th  December,  1767 ;  but  owing  to  her  unhappy  temper 
and  disposition,  was  compelled,  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two,  to 
abandon  her,  being  thoroughly  convinced  that  it  was  for  the  happi- 
ness of  both  that  they  should  separate.  This  event  occasioned 
him  great  affliction,  from  being  obliged  to  leave  a  child  whom  he 
"  loved  as  dear  as  himself."  A  misfortune  subsequently  happen- 
ing to  her,  he  observes,  "  could  I  have  foreseen  it,  I  should  never 
have  abandoned  her,  but  have  endeavored  to  worry  through  life  in 
her  company  as  well  as  I  might." 

On  forsaking  the  place  of  his  nativity,  Fitch  went  to  Pittsfield, 
Mass.,  but  not  having  constant  employment  there,  visited  Albany, 
yet  with  no  better  success.  A  short  time  after,  we  find  him  in 
New  Jersey,  in  a  destitute  condition,  endeavoring  to  find  employ- 
ment on  some  farm  as  a  common  laborer,  but  his  sickly  appear- 
ance baffled  all  his  efforts, — no  one  would  employ  him.  Finally, 
he  entered  into  the  business  of  making  buttons,  which  he  pursued 
with  tolerable  success,  first  at  New  Brunswick,  and  afterwards  at 
Trenton. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  Fitch  espoused  the 
popular  cause,  and  during  a  portion  of  the  time  rendered  himself 
very  useful  in  repairing  arms  for  the  continental  army.  Subse- 
quently he  removed  to  Kentucky,  where  he  received  the  appoint- 
ment and  practised  as  a  surveyor.  While  at  the  West,  and  in 
navigating  a  river  in  a  small  boat,  Fitch  and  his  companions  were 
taken  prisoners  and  carried  into 'captivity  by  the  Indians,  but  after 
considerable  hardship  and  suffering,  were  released.  At  a  subse- 
quent period  he  became  once  more  an  inhabitant  of  one  of  the 
Atlantic  states. 

"  In  the  month  of  April,  1785,"  says  Fitch,  in  the  manuscript 


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JOHN  FITCH.  27 

alluded  to,  "  I  was  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  an  idea  that  a  car. 
riage  might  be  carried  by  the  force  of  steam  along  the  roads. 
I  pursued  that  idea  about  one  week,  and  gave  it  over  as  imprac- 
ticable, or,  in  other  words,  turned  my  thoughts  to  vessels.  From 
that  time  I  have  pursued  the  idea  to  this  day  with  unremitted  assi- 
duity, yet  do  frankly  confess  that  it  has  been  the  most  imprudent 
scheme  that  ever  I  engaged  in.  The  perplexities  and  embarrass- 
ments through  which  it  has  caused  me  to  wade,  far  exceed  any 
thing  that  the  common  course  of  life  ever  presented  to  my  view ; 
and  to  reflect  on  the  disproportion  of  a  man  of  my  abilities  to 
such  a  task,  I  am  to  charge  myself  with  having  been  deranged ; 
and  had  I  not  the  most  convincing  proofs  to  the  contrary,  should 
most  certainly  suppose  myself  to  have  been  non  compos  mentis  at 
the  time." 

In  another  place  he  remarks,  "  If  I  had  the  abilities  of  Cicero, 
it  would  have  been  nothing  less  than  madness  in  me  to  have  un- 
dertaken it,  in  my  state  of  penury.  Had  I  been  a  nobleman  of 
£3000,  it  would  barely  have  justified  my  conduct." 

Again,  he  says,  "  What  I  am  now  to  inform  you  of  I  know  will 
not  be  to  my  credit,  but,  so  long  as  it  is  the  truth,  I  will  insert  it, 
viz.,  that  I  did  not  know  that  there  was  a  steam  engine  on  earth 
when  I  proposed  to  gain  a  force  by  steam ;  and  I  leave  my  first 
drafts  and  descriptions  behind,  that  you  may  judge  whether  I  am 
sincere  or  not.  A  short  time  after  drawing  my  first  draft  for  a 
boat,  I  was  amazingly  chagrined  to  find,  at  Parson  Irwin's,  in 
Bucks  county,  a  drawing  of  a  steam  engine  ;  but  it  had  the  effect 
to  establish  me  in  my  other  principles,  as  my  doubts  lay  at  that 
time  in  the  engine  only." 

The  following  account  of  Fitch's  experiments  is  written  by  one 
of  his  early  patrons,  the  late  Dr.  Thornton,  of  the  patent  office  at 
Washington,  and  is  entitled  "  A  short  account  of  the  origin  of 
steamboats :" — 

"  Finding  that  Mr.  Robert  Fulton,*  whose  genius  and  talents  I 
highly  jespect,  has  been  considered  by  some  the  inventor  of  the 
steamboat,  I  think  it  a  duty  to  the  memory  of  the  late  JOHN  FITCH 
to  set  forth,  with  as  much  brevity  as  possible,  the  fallacy  of  this 
opinion  ;  and  to  show,  moreover,  that  if  Mr.  Fulton  has  any  claim 
whatever  to  originality  in  his  steamboat,  it  must  be  exceedingly 
limited. 

"  In  the  year  1788,  the  late  John  Fitch  applied  for,  and  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  the  application  of  steam  to  navigation,  in  the 

*  It  may  not  be  invidious  here  to  mention,  that  one  great  advantage  which 
Mr.  Fulton  possessed  over  many,  if  not  all  preceding  experimenters,  was  the 
use  of  one  of  Watt's  improved  steam  engines. 

3 


28  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

states  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  &c. ; 
and  soon  after,  the  late  Mr.  James  Rumsey,*  conceiving  he  had 
made  some  discoveries  in  perfecting  the  same,  applied  to  the  state 
of  Pennsylvania  for  a  patent;  but  a  company  formed  by  John 

*  Biographical  Sketch  of  James  Rumsey. — "  This  individual  was  a  native  of  Mary- 
land, and,  when  a  young  man,  removed  to  Shepherdstown,  Virginia,  where  he 
occupied  himself  exclusively  in  mechanical  subjects.  As  early  as  July  or  August, 
1783,  he  directed  his  attention  to  the  subject  of  navigation  by  steam ;  and,  under 
the  most  disadvantageous  circumstances,  succeeded,  in  the  autumn  of  1784,  in 
making  a  private,  but  very  imperfect  experiment,  in  order  to  test  some  of  the 
principles  of  his  invention.  This  so  well  convinced  him  of  its  ultimate  success, 
that  at  the  October  session  of  the  Virginia  legislature  for  that  year,  he  applied 
for  and  obtained  an  act,  guarantying  to  him  the  exclusive  use  of  his  invention 
in  navigating  the  waters  of  that  state.  About  the  same  time  also  he  communi- 
cated his  invention  to  General  Washington.  In  January,  1785,  he  obtained  a 
patent  from  the  general  assembly  of  Maryland  for  navigating  their  waters. 
Through  the  whole  of  this  year,  Rumsey  was  deeply  engaged  in  building  a  boat, 
and  procuring,  improving,  adapting,  and  testing  the  several  parts  of  his  machin- 
ery ;  but,  from  obvious  causes,  was  not  ready  for  a  public  trial  until  the  year  fol- 
lowing, (1786,)  which,  all  things  considered,  was  eminently  successful.  In  this 
trial  he  succeeded  in  propelling  his  boat  by  steam  alone  against  the  current  of  the 
Potomac,  near  Shepherdstown,  at  the  rate  of  four  or  Jive  miles  an  hour  ! 

"  Rumsey's  boat  was  about  fifty  feet  in  length,  and,  as  observed  in  the  text,  was 
propelled  by  a  pump  worked  by  a  steam  engine,  which  forced  a  quantity  of  water 
up  through  the  keel ;  the  valve  was  then  shut  by  the  return  of  the  stroke,  which 
at  the  same  time  forced  the  water  through  a  channel  or  pipe,  a  few  inches  square 
(lying  above  or  parallel  to  the  kelson,)  out  at  the  stern  under  the  rudder,  which 
had  a  less  depth  than  usual,  to  permit  the  exit  of  the  water.  The  impetus  of 
this  water,  forced  through  the  square  channel  against  the  exterior  water,  acted 
as  an  impelling  power  upon  the  vessel.  The  reaction  of  the  effluent  water  pro- 
pelled her  at  the  rate  above  mentioned,  when  loaded  with  three  tons  in  addition 
to  the  weight  of  her  engine  of  about  a  third  of  a  ton.  The  boiler  was  quite  a 
curiosity,  holding  no  more  than  five  gallons  of  water,  and  needing  only  a  pint  at 
a  time.  The  whole  machinery  did  not  occupy  a  space  greater  than  that  required 
for  four  barrels  of  flour.  The  fuel  consumed  was  not  more  than  from  four  to  six 
bushels  of  coals  in  twelve  hours.  Rumsey's  other  project  was  to  apply  the 
power  of  a  steam  engine  to  long  poles,  which  were  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the 
river,  and  by  that  means  to  push  a  boat  against  a  rapid  current. 

"  After  the  experiment  above  alluded  to,  Rumsey  being  under  the  strong  con- 
viction that  skilful  workmen  and  perfect  machinery  were  alone  wanting  to  the 
most  perfect  success,  and  sensible  that  such  could  not  be  procured  in  America, 
resolved  to  go  to  England.  With  slender  means  of  his  own,  and  aided,  or  rather 
mocked,  by  some  timid  and  unsteady  patronage,  he  there  resumed  with  untiring 
energy  his  great  undertaking.  He  proceeded  to  procure  patents  of  the  British 
government  for  steam  navigation :  these  patents  bear  date  in  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1788.  Several  of  his  inventions,  in  one  modified  form  or  another,  are 
now  in  general  use  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  cylindrical  boiler,  so  superior  to  the 
old  tub  or  still  boilers,  in  the  presentation  of  fire  surface,  and  capacity  for  hold- 
ing highly  rarefied  steam,  is  described,  both  single  and  combined,  in  his  specifi- 
cations, and  is  identical  in  principle  with  the  tub  boiler  which  he  used  in  his 
Potomac  experiment. 

"  Difficulties  and  embarrassments  of  a  pecuniary  nature,  and  such  as  invari- 
ably obstruct  the  progress  of  a  new  invention,  attended  him  in  England.  He 
was  often  compelled  to  abandon  temporarily  his  main  object,  and  turn  his  atten- 
tion to  something  else,  in  order  to  raise  means  to  resume  it.  He  undertook  with 
the  same  power,  but  by  its  more  judicious  application,  to  produce  higher  results 
in  sereral  waterworks,  in  all  which  he  succeeded,  realizing  thereby  some  reputa- 
tion as  well  as  funds  to  apply  to  his  favorite  project. 


JOHN  FITCH.  29 

Fitch,  under  his  state  patents,  of  which  the  author  of  this  was  one 
of  the  principal  shareholders,  conceiving  that  the  patent  of  Fitch 
was  not  for  any  peculiar  mode  of  applying  the  steam  to  navigation, 
but  that  it  extended  to  all  known  modes  of  propelling  boats  and 
vessels,  contested  before  the  assembly  of  Pennsylvania,  and  also 
before  the  assembly  of  Delaware,  the  mode  proposed  by  Mr.  Rum- 
sey,  and  contended  that  the  mode  he  proposed,  viz.,  by  drawing 
up  the  water  into  a  tube,  and  forcing  the  same  water  out  of  the 
stern  of  the  vessel  or  boat,  which  was  derived  from  Dr.  Franklin's 
works,  (the  doctor  being  one  of  the  company,)  was  a  mode  the 
company  had  a  right  to,  for  the  plan  was  originally  published  in 
Latin,  about  fifty  years  before,  in  the  works  of  Bernouilli  the 
younger.  Two  of  Fitch's  company  and  I  appeared  without 
counsel,  and  pleaded  our  own  cause  in  the  assembly  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  after  a  week's  patient  hearing  against  the  most  learned 
counsel  of  Pennsylvania,  we  obtained  a  decision  in  our  favor,  and 
afterwards  also  in  Delaware.  We  believed  and  contended  that 
our  claim  of  propelling  boats  by  steam  included  all  the  modes  of 
propelling  vessels  and  boats  then  known,  and  that  the  patent  was 
for  the  application  of  steam  as  an  agent  to  the  propelling  powers : 
and  the  decisions  of  the  legislatures  were  in  favor  of  this  construe- 
tion,  as  Mr.  Ramsey's  company  (of  which  the  late  Messrs.  Bing- 
ham,  Myers,  Fisher,  and  many  other  worthy  gentlemen,  were 
members,)  were  excluded  from  the  right  of  using  steamboats  on 
any  principle." 

"  At  another  tirtie,  in  order  to  avoid  a  London  prison,  and  the  delay,  if  not  the 
defeat  of  all  his  high  hopes,  he  was  compelled  to  transfer,  at  what  he  considered 
a  ruinous  sacrifice,  a  large  interest  in  his  inventions, — a  contract  which  entan- 
gled and  embarrassed  him  through  life.  Still,  however,  he  struggled  on,  undis- 
mayed, and  had  constructed  a  boat  of  about  one  hundred  tons  burden,  and  pushed 
forward  his  machinery  so  near  to  the  point  of  completion,  as  to  be  able  to  indi- 
cate a  day  not  very  distant  for  a  public  exhibition,  when  his  sudden  death  occurred 
from  apoplexy,  while  discussing  the  principle  of  one  of  his  inventions  before  a 
philosophical  society  of  London.  With  his  life  the  whole  project  ceased, — there 
was  no  one  present  to  administer, — no  one  present  able  to  carry  it  out.  Few 
would  have  been  willing  to  incur  the  ridicule  of  attempting  to  complete  it.  All 
that  he  left, — his  very  boat  and  machinery, — barely  sufficed  to  satisfy  anxious 
ami  greedy  creditors." 

A  sharp  controversy  at  one  time  existed  between  Rumsey  and  Fitch,  and  their 
mutual  friends,  relating  to  the  originality  of  their  respective  inventions.  With- 
out deciding  upon  the  merits  of  either,  both  certainly  claim  the  highest  admira- 
tion for  their  perseverance,  as  well  as  sympathy  for  their  misfortunes. 

For  the  above  facts,  see  Stuart's  Anecdotes  of  the  Steam  Engine,  and  the 
speech  of  Mr.  Rumsey  of  Kentucky  before  the  house  of  representatives,  on  the 
occasion  of  offering  the  following  resolution,  afterwards  unanimously  passed, 
Feb.  9,  1839 : — "  Resolved  by  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives,  &c.  &c., 
That  the  President  be  and  he  is  hereby  requested  to  present  to  James  Rumsey, 
jun.,  the  son  and  only  surviving  child  of  James  Rumsey,  deceased,  a  suitable 
gold  medal,  commemorative  of  his  father's  services  and  high  agency  in  giving  to 
the  world  the  benefits  of  the  steamboat/' 


30  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

"  We  worked  incessantly  at  the  boat*  to  bring  it  to  perfection, 
and  under  the  disadvantages  of  never  having  seen  a  steam  engine 
on  the  principles  contemplated,  of  not  having  a  single  engineer 
in  our  company  or  pay, — we  made  engineers  of  common  black, 
smiths ;  and  after  expending  many  thousand  dollars,  the  boat  did 
not  exceed  three  miles  an  hour.  Finding  great  unwillingness  in 
many  to  proceed,  I  proposed  to  the  company  to  give  up  to  any 
one,  the  one-half  of  my  shares,  who  would,  at  his  own  expense, 
make  a  boat  go  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour,  in  dead  water, 
in  eighteen  months,  or  forfeit  all  the  expenditures  on  failing ;  or  I 
would  engage  with  any  others  to  accept  these  terms.  Each  re- 
linquished one  half  of  his  shares,  by  making  the  forty  shares  eighty, 
and  holding  only  as  many  of  the  new  shares  as  he  held  of  the  old 
ones,  and  then  subscribed  as  far  as  he  thought  proper  to  enter  on 
the  terms  :  by  which  many  relinquished  one  half.  I  was  among 
the  number,  and  in  less  than  twelve  months  we  were  ready  for 
the  experiment. 

"  The  day  was  appointed,  and  the  experiment  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner: — A  mile  was  measured  in  Front  (Water)  street, 
Philadelphia,  and  the  bounds  projected  at  right  angles,  as  exactly 
as  could  be  to  the  wharf,  where  a  flag  was  placed  at  each  end, 
and  also  a  stop  watch.  The  boat  was  ordered  under  way  at  dead 
water,  or  when  the  tide  was  found  to  be  without  movement;  as 
the  boat  passed  one  flag,  it  struck,  and  at  the  same  instant  the 
watches  were  set  off;  as  the  boat  reached  the  other  flag  it  was 
also  struck,  and  the  watches  instantly  stopped.  Every  precaution 
was  taken  before  witnesses :  the  time  was  shown  to  all ;  the  ex- 
periment  declared  to  be  fairly  made,  and  the  boat  was  found  to  go 
at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour,  or  one  mile  in  seven  minutes 

*  Description  of  Fitch's  Steamboat. — The  following  account  of  Mr.  Fitch's  boat 
is  given  by  the  unfortunate  inventor  in  the  Columbian  (Philadelphia)  Magazine, 
vol.  i.  for  December,  178G,  of  which  the  engraving  annexed  will  give  some  idea. 
"  The  cylinder  is  to  be  horizontal,  and  the  steam  to  work  with  equal  force  at 
each  end.  The  mode  by  which  we  obtain  a  vacuum  is,  it  is  believed,  entirely 
new,  as  is  also  the  method  of  letting  the  water  into  it  and  throwing  it  off  against 
the  atmosphere  without  any  friction.  It  is  expected  that  the  cylinder,  which  is 
of  twelve  inches  diameter,  will  move  a  clear  force  of  eleven  or  twelve  cwt.  after 
the  frictions  are  deducted  ;  this  force  is  to  be  directed  against  a  wheel  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter.  The  piston  is  to  move  about  three  feet,  and  each  vibration 
of  it  gives  the  axis  about  forty  evolutions.  Each  evolution  of  the  axis  moves 
twelve  oars  or  paddles  five  and  a  half  feet ;  they  work  perpendicularly,  and  are 
represented  by  the  strokes  of  a  paddle  of  a  canoe.  As  six  of  the  paddles  are 
raised  from  the  water,  six  more  are  entered,  and  the  two  sets  of  paddles  make 
their  strokes  of  about  eleven  feet  in  each  evolution.  The  crank  of  the  axis  acts 
upon  the  paddles,  about  one  third  of  their  length  from  their  lower  ends,  on 
which  part  of  the  oar  the  whole  force  of  the  axis  is  applied.  The  engine  is 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  about  one  third  from  the  stern,  and  both  'the 
action  and  reaction  turn  the  wheel  the  same  way." 


!  , 


JOHN  FITCH.  .  33 

and  a  half;  on  which  the  shares  were  signed  over  with  great 
satisfaction  by  the  rest  of  the  company.  It  afterwards  went  eighty 
miles  in  a  day  ! 

"  The  governor  and  council  of  Pennsylvania  were  so  highly 
gratified  with  our  labors,  that  without  their  intentions  being  pre- 
viously known  to  us,  Governor  Mifflin,  attended  by  the  council  in 
procession,  presented  to  the  company,  and  placed  in  the  boat,  a 
superb  silk  flag,  prepared  expressly,  and  containing  the  arms  of 
Pennsylvania ;  and  this  flag  we  possessed  till  Mr.  Fitch  was  sent 
to  France  by  the  company,  at  the  request  of  Aaron  Vail,  Esq., 
our  consul  at  L'Orient,  who,  being  one  of  the  company,  was  soli- 
citous to  have  steamboats  built  in  France.  John  Fitch  took  the 
flag,  unknown  to  the  company,  and  presented  it  to  the  national 
convention.  Mr.  Vail,  finding  all  the  workmen  put  in  requisition, 
and  that  none  could  be  obtained  to  build  the  boats,  paid  the  ex- 
penses of  Mr.  Fitch,  who  returned  to  the  United  States  ;  and  Mr. 
Vail  afterwards  subjected  to  the  examination  of  Mr.  Fulton,  when 
in  France,  the  papers  and  designs  of  the  steamboat  appertaining 
to  the  company." 

"  As  Dr.  Thornton  has  stated  in  his  account,  as  quoted  above, 
the  company  refused  to  advance  more  funds.  This  they  did,  after 
interfering  with  his  views,  and  attempting  expensive  plans  of  im- 
provement, which  failed  of  success  ;  and  being  probably  influenced 
by  that  unceasing  ridicule  cast  upon  the  project,  they  one  by  one 
gradually  withdrew  from  the  concern.  The  conviction  of  Fitch, 
however,  respecting  the  power  of  steam,  continued  firm ;  and  in 
June,  1792,  when  the  boat  was  laid  up,  he  addressed  a  letter  on 
the  subject  to  Mr.  Rittenhouse,  one  of  the  shareholders,  in  which 
he  says,  4  it  would  be  much  easier  to  carry  a  first-rate  man-of-war 
by  steam  than  a  boat,  as  we  would  not  be  cramped  for  room,  nor 
would  the  weight  of  machinery  be  felt.  This,  sir,  will  be  the  mode 
of  crossing  the  Atlantic  in  time,  whether  I  bring  it  to  perfection  or 
not,  for  packets  and  armed  vessels.  I  mean  to  make  use  of  the 
wind  when  we  have  it,  and  in  a  calm  to  pursue  the  voyage  at  the 
rate  of  seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour.'  He  further  suggests  the 
use  of  steam  to  conquer  the  cruisers  of  Barbary,  by  which  several 
American  vessels  had  then  been  lately  captured.  He  says,  *  a 
six-foot  cylinder  could  discharge  a  column  of  water  from  the  round 
top  forty  or  fifty  yards,  and  throw  a  man  off  his  feet,  and  wet  their 
arms  and  ammunition.'  He  complains  of  his  poverty ;  and  to 
raise  funds,  he  urges  Mr.  Rittenhouse  to  purchase  his  lands  in 
Kentucky,  that  he  *  might  have  the  honor  of  enabling  him  to  com- 
plete the  great  undertaking.' 

«  Fitch's  enthusiasm  on  the  subject  never  diminished  one  mo- 

3* 


34  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

ment,  and  steam  was  the  constant  theme  of  his  discourse  whenever 
he  could  prevail  upon  any  one  to  listen  to  him.  Upon  one  occa- 
sion he  called  upon  a  smith  who  had  worked  at  his  boat,  and  after 
dwelling  some  time  upon  his  favorite  topic,  concluded  with  these 
prophetic  words :  *  Well,  gentlemen,  although  I  shall  not  live  to 
see  the  time,  you  will,  when  steamboats  will  be  preferred  to  all 
other  means  of  conveyance,  and  especially  for  passengers ;  and 
they  will  be  particularly  useful  in  the  navigation  of  the  river  Mis- 
sissippi.' He  then  retired,  when  a  person  present  observed,  in  a 
tone  of  deep  sympathy,  *  Poor  fellow!  what  a  pity  lie  is  crazy!* 
The  predictions  of  the  benefits  which  this  country  would  derive 
from  steam  navigation  are  frequently  referred  to  in  his  manuscript 
left  to  the  library  company." 

On  the  return  from  his  unsuccessful  sojourn  in  Europe,  Fitch 
landed  at  Boston  in  a  veiy  needy  and  destitute  condition.  A  re- 
lation, Colonel  George  King,  of  Sharon,  Connecticut,  hearing  of  his 
friendless  situation,  sent  for  and  generously  offered  him  a  home 
under  his  own  roof.  Here  he  remained  two  or  three  years,  and 
some  time  in  1796  went  out  to  Kentucky,  to  obtain  possession  of 
some  lands  which  he  had  purchased  while  surveying  there.  For 
this  purpose,  writs  of  ejectment  were  issued  against  those  illegally 
occupying  them ;  and  just  as  a  better  day  was  dawning  upon  the 
career  of  this  most  singularly  unfortunate  man,  he  was  seized 
with  a  fever  of  the  country,  and  died. 

"  In  conformity  to  his  wishes,  he  was  buried  on  the  shores  of  the 
Ohio,  that  he  might  repose  *  where  the  song  of  the  boatmen  would 
enliven  the  stillness  of  his  resting  place,  and  the  music  of  the  steam 
engine  sooth  his  spirit  /'  What  an  idea  ! — yet  how  natural  to  the 
mind  of  an  ardent  projector,  who  had  been  so  long  devoted  to  one 
darling  object,  which  it  was  not  his  destiny  to  accomplish ! — and 
how  touching  is  the  sentiment  found  in  his  journal : — '  The  day 
will  come  when  some  more  powerful  man  will  get  fame  and  riches 
from  my  invention,  but  nobody  will  believe  that  poor  John  Fitch 
can  do  any  thing  worthy  of  attention  T  " 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


Birth. — Intended  for  the  church. — Attends  a  common  school. — Assists  his  father 
in  the  tallow  chandlery. — Dislikes  the  business. — Tries  the  cutler's  trade. — 
Becomes  an  apprentice  in  his  brother's  printing-office. — Evinces  great  fond- 
ness for  books. — Is  allowed  access  to  a  gentleman's  library. — Turns  poet,  and 
hawks  his  productions  through  the  streets. — Rising  vanity  checked. — His 
friend  Collins,  and  their  discussions. — Meets  with  an  odd  volume  of  the  Spec- 
tator.— Improvement  in  composition. — Economy,  and  new  system  of  diet. — 
Masters  arithmetic,  and  studies  navigation. — Secretly  contributes  to  his  bro- 
ther's newspaper. — A  discovery. — Is  viewed  as  a  person  of  some  consequence. 
— Quarrels  with  his  brother. — First  error  in  life. — Privately  leaves  for  New 
York. — Destitute  condition. — Proceeds  to  Philadelphia. — Graphic  description. 
— Enters  into  the  printing-office  of  Keimer. — Makes  a  distinguished  acquaint- 
ance.— Dines  with  Governor  Keith. — Informs  his  parents  of  his  situation. — 
Goes  out  to  England  under  the  supposed  patronage  of  the  governor. — Disap- 
pointment and  imposition. — Thrown  upon  his  own  resources,  and  works  in 
London  as  a  journeyman  printer, — Writes  a  pamphlet. — Attracts  the  attention 
of  literary  men. — Frugality  and  temperance. — Sets  an  example. — A  friend  re 
turning  to  Philadelphia,  is  engaged  as  his  clerk. — Voyage. — Forms  a  plan  foi 
future  conduct.— Arrival  at  Philadelphia. — Death  of  his  friend. — Once  more 
thrown  upon  the  world. — Enters  again  into  Keimer's  service. — Franklin  and 
Meredith  set  up  a  printing-office. — Industry. — Rising  credit,— -Thinks  of  estab- 
lishing a  new  paper. — Treachery. — Its  defeat. — Purchases  Keimer's  paper.— 
Growing  popularity. — Buys  out  his  partner. — Opens  a  stationer's  shop. — Mar- 
ries.— Establishes  the  first  American  circulating  library. — Publishes  "  Pool 
Richard's  Almanac."— -Studies  languages. — Chosen  clerk  of  the  general  as- 
sembly.— Appointed  deputy  postmaster.— Becomes  interested  in  public  affairs. 
• — Suggests  various  public  improvements. — Made  an  alderman. — Elected  bur- 
gess to  the  general  assembly. — Interesting  electrical  discoveries. — Draws  down 
lightning  from  the  clouds. — Increasing  honors. — Becomes  an  eminent  states- 
man.— Signs  the  declaration  of  independence. — Sent  ambassador  to  the  court 
of  France.^Chosen  president  of  the  supreme  executive  council. — Character. — 
Death. — Anecdotes. 

THE  name  we  are  now  to  mention  is  perhaps  the  most  distin- 
guished to  be  found  in  the  annals  of  self-education.  Of  all  those, 
at  least,  who,  by  their  own  efforts,  and  without  any  usurpation  of 
the  rights  of  others,  have  raised  themselves  to  a  high  place  in 
society,  there  is  no  one,  as  has  been  remarked,  the  close  of  whose 
history  presents  so  great  a  contrast  to  its  commencement  as  that 
of  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  It  fortunately  happens,  too,  in  his  case, 
that  we  are  in  possession  of  abundant  information  as  to  the  methods 
by  which  he  contrived  to  surmount  the  many  disadvantages  of  his 
original  condition ;  to  raise  himself  from  the  lowest  poverty  and 
obscurity  to  affluence  and  distinction ;  and,  above  all,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  instructors,  and  of  the  ordinary  helps  to  the  acquisition 


38  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

of  knowledge,  to  enrich  himself  so  plentifully  with  the  treasures 
of  literature  and  science,  as  not  only  to  be  enabled  to  derive  from 
that  source  the  chief  happiness  of  his  life,  but  to  succeed  in  placing 
himself  high  among  the  most  famous  writers  and  philosophers  of 
his  time.  We  shall  avail  ourselves,  as  liberally  as  our  limits  will 
permit,  of  the  ample  details,  respecting  the  early  part  of  his  life 
especially,  that  have  been  given  to  the  public,  in  order  to  present 
to  the  reader  as  full  and  distinct  an  account  as  possible  of  the  suc- 
cessive steps  of  a  progress  so  eminently  worthy  of  being  recorded, 
both  from  the  interesting  nature  of  the  story,  and  from  its  value  as 
an  example  and  lesson,  perhaps  the  most  instructive  to  be  any- 
where  found,  for  all  who  have  to  be  either  the  architects  of  their 
own  fortunes,  or  their  own  guides  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. 

Franklin  has  himself  told  us  tlm  story  of  his  early  life  inimitably 
well.  The  narrative  is  given  in  the  form  of  a  letter  to  his  son ; 
and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  written  originally  with  any  view 
to  publication.  "  From  the  poverty  arid  obscurity,"  he  says,  "  in 
which  I  was  born,  and  in  which  I  passed  my  earliest  years,  I  have 
raised  myself  to  a  state  of  affluence,  and  some  degree  of  celebrity 
in  the  world.  As  constant  good  fortune  has  accompanied  me, 
even  to  an  advanced  period  of  life,  my  posterity  will  perhaps  be 
desirous  of  learning  the  means  which  I  employed,  and  which, 
thanks  to  Providence,  so  well  succeeded  with  me.  They  may  also 
deem  them  fit  to  be  imitated,  should  any  of  them  find  themselves 
in  similar  circumstances."  It  is  not  many  years  since  this  letter 
was,  for  the  first  time,  given  to  the  world  by  the  grandson  of  the 
illustrious  writer,  only  a  small  portion  of  it  having  previously  ap- 
peared, and  that  merely  a  re-translation  into  English  from  a 
French  version  of  the  original  manuscript  which  had  been  pub- 
lished at  Paris. 

Franklin  was  born  at  Boston,  on  the  17th  of  January,  1706  ; 
the  youngest,  with  the  exception  of  two  daughters,  of  a  family  of 
'seventeen  children.  His  father,  who  had  emigrated  from  England 
about  twenty -four  years  before,  followed  the  occupation  of  a  soap, 
boiler  and  tallow-chandler,  a  business  to  which  he  had  not  been 
bred,  and  by  which  he  seems  with  difficulty  to  have  been  able  to 
support  his  numerous  family.  At  first  it  was  proposed  to  make 
Benjamin  a  clergyman ;  and  he  was  accordingly,  having  before 
learned  to  read,  put  to  the  grammar-school  at  eight  years  of  age  ; 
— an  uncle,  whose  namesake  he  was,  and  who  appears  to  have 
been  an  ingenious  man,  encouraging  the  project  by  offering  to  give 
him  several  volumes  of  sermons  to  set  up  with,  which  he  had  taken 
down,  in  a  short-hand  of  his  own  invention,  from  the  different 
preachers  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of  hearing.  This  person,  who 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  39 

was  now  advanced  in  life,  had  been  only  a  common  silk-dyer,  but 
had  been  both  a  great  reader  and  writer  in  his  day,  having  filled 
two  quarto  volumes  with  his  own  manuscript  poetry.  What  he 
was  most  proud  of,  however,  was  his  short-hand,  which  he  was 
very  anxious  that  his  nephew  should  learn.  But  young  Franklin 
had  hot  been  quite  a  year  at  the  grammar-school,  when  his  father 
began  to  reflect  that  the  expense  of  a  college  education  for  him 
was  what  he  could  not  very  well  afford.  He  was  removed,  and 
placed  for  another  year  under  a  teacher  of  writing  and  arithmetic ; 
after  which  his  father  took  him  home,  when  he  was  no  more  than 
ten  years  old,  to  assist  him  in  his  own  business.  Accordingly  he 
was  employed,  he  tells  us,  in  cutting  wicks  for  the  candles,  filling 
the  moulds  for  cast  candles,  attending  the  shop,  going  errands,  and 
other  drudgery  of  the  same  kind.  He  showed  so  much  dislike, 
however,  to  this  business,  that  his  father,  afraid  he  would  break 
loose  and  go  to  sea,  as  one  of  his  elder  brothers  had  done,  found 
it  advisable,  after  a  trial  of  two  years,  to  look  about  for  another 
occupation  for  him ;  and  taking  him  round  to  see  a  great  many 
different  sorts  of  tradesmen  at  their  work,  it  was  at  last  agreed 
upon  that  he  should  be  bound  apprentice  to  a  cousin  of  his  own, 
who  was  a  cutler.  But  he  had  been  only  for  some  days  on  trial 
at  this  business,  when,  his  father  thinking  the  apprentice-fee  which 
his  cousin  asked  too  high,  he  was  again  taken  home.  In  this  state 
of  things  it  was  finally  resolved  to  place  him  with  his  brother 
James,  who  had  been  bred  a  printer,  and  had  just  returned  from 
England  and  set  up  on  his  own  account  at  Boston.  To  him, 
therefore,  Benjamin  was  bound  apprentice,  when  he  was  yet  only 
in  his  twelfth  year,  on  an  agreement  that  he  should  remain  with 
him  in  that  capacity  till  he  reached  the  age  of  twenty-one. 

One  of  the  principal  reasons  which  induced  his  father  to  deter- 
mine upon  this  profession  for  him,  was  the  fondness  he  had  from 
his  infancy  shown  for  reading.  All  the  money  he  could  get  hold 
of  used  to  be  eagerly  laid  out  in  the  purchase  of  books.  His  fa- 
ther's small  collection  consisted  principally  of  works  in  controver- 
sial divinity,  a  subject  of  little  interest  to  a  reader  of  his  age  ;  but, 
such  as  they  were,  he  went  through  most  of  them.  Fortunately 
there  was  also  a  copy  of  Plutarch's  Lives,  which  he  says  he  read 
abundantly.  This,  and  a  book  by  Daniel  Defoe,  called  an  Essay 
on  Projects,  he  seems  to  think  were  the  two  works  from  which  he 
derived  the  most  advantage.  His  new  profession  of  a  printer,  by 
procuring  him  the  acquaintance  of  some  booksellers'  apprentices, 
enabled  him  considerably  to  extend  his  acquaintance  with  books, 
by  frequently  borrowing  a  volume  in  the  evening,  which  he  sat  up 
reading  the  greater  part  of  the  night,  in  order  that  he  might  return 


40  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

it  in  the  morning,  lest  it  should  be  missed.  But  these  solitary 
studies  did  not  prevent  him  from  soon  acquiring  a  great  proficiency 
in  his  business,  in  which  he  was  every  day  becoming  more  useful 
to  his  brother.  After  some  time,  too,  his  access  to  books  was 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  kindness  of  a  liberal-minded  merchant, 
who  was  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  the  printing-office,  and,  being 
possessed  of  a  tolerable  library,  invited  young  Franklin,  whose  in- 
dustry and  intelligence  had  attracted  his  attention,  to  come  to  see 
it ;  after  which  he  allowed  him  to  borrow  from  it  such  volumes  as 
he  wished  to  read. 

Our  young  student  was  now  to  distinguish  himself  in  a  new 
character.  The  perusal  of  the  works  of  others  suggested  to  him 
the  idea  of  trying  his  own  talent  at  composition ;  and  his  first 
attempts  in  this  way  were  a  few  pieces  of  poetry.  Verse,  it  may 
be  observed,  is  generally  the  earliest  sort  of  composition  attempted 
either  by  nations  or  individuals,  and  for  the  same  reasons  in  both 
cases — namely,  first,  because  poetry  has  peculiar  charms  for  the 
unripe  understanding ;  and,  secondly,  because  people  at  first  find 
it  difficult  to  conceive  what  composition  is  at  all,  independently  of 
such  measured  cadences  and  other  regularities  as  constitute  verse. 
Franklin's  poetical  fit,  however,  did  not  last  long.  Saving  been 
induced  by  his  brother  to  write  two  ballads,  he  was  sent  to  sell 
them  through  the  streets ;  and  one  of  them,  at  least,  being  on  a 
subject  which  had  just  made  a  good  deal  of  noise  in  the  place,  sold, 
as  he  tells  us,  prodigiously.  But  his  father,  who,  without  much 
literary  knowledge,  was  a  man  of  a  remarkably  sound  and  vigorous 
understanding,  soon  brought  down  the  rising  vanity  of  the  young 
poet,  by  pointing  out  to  him  the  many  faults  of  his  performances, 
and  convincing  him  what  wretched  stuff  they  really  were.  Having 
been  told,  too,  that  verse-makers  were  generally  beggars,  with  his 
characteristic  prudence  he  determined  to  write  no  more  ballads. 

He  had  an  intimate  acquaintance  of  the  name  of  Collins,  who 
was,  like  himself,  passionately  fond  of  books,  and  with  whom  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  arguing  upon  such  subjects  as  they  met  with  in 
the  course  of  their  reading.  Among  other  questions  which  they 
discussed  in  this  way,  one  accidentally  arose  on  the  abilities  of 
women,  and  the  propriety  of  giving  them  a  learned  education. 
Collins  maintained  their  natural  unfitness  for  any  of  the  severer 
studies,  while  Franklin  took  the  contrary  side  of  the  question — 
"  perhaps,"  he  says,  "  a  little  for  dispute  sake."  His  antagonist 
had  always  the  greater  plenty  of  words  ;  but  Franklin  thought  that, 
on  this  occasion  in  particular,  his  own  arguments  were  rather  the 
stronger ;  and  on  their  parting  without  settling  the  point,  he  sat 
down,  and  put  a  summary  of  what  he  advanced  in  writing,  which 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN.  41 

he  copied  out  and  sent  to  Collins.  This  gave  a  new  form  to  the 
discussion,  which  was  now  carried  on  for  some  time  by  letters,  of 
which  three  or  four  had  been  written  on  both  sides,  when  the  cor- 
respondence  fell  into  the  hands  of  Franklin's  father.  His  natural 
acuteness  and  good  sense  enabled  him  here  again  to  render  an 
essential  service  to  his  son,  by  pointing  out  to  him  how  far  he  fell 
short  of  his  antagonist  in  elegance  of  expression,  in  method,  and 
in  perspicuity,  though  he  had  the  advantage  of  him  in  correct 
spelling  and  punctuation,  which  he  evidently  owed  to  his  expe- 
rience in  the  printing-office.  From  that  moment  Franklin  deter- 
mined to  spare  no  pains  in  endeavoring  to  improve  his  style ;  and 
we  shall  give,  in  his  own  words,  the  method  he  pursued  for  that 
end. 

"  About  this  time,"  says  he,  "  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  the 
Spectator;  I  had  never  before  seen  any  of  them.  I  bought  it, 
read  it  over  and  over,  and  was  much  delighted  with  it.  I  thought 
the  writing  excellent ;  and  wished,  if  possible,  to  imitate  it.  With 
that  view,  I  took  some  of  the  papers,  and  making  short  hints  of  the 
sentiments  in  each  sentence,  laid  them  by  a  few  days ;  and  then, 
without  looking  at  the  book,  tried  to  complete  the  papers  again, 
by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at  length,  and  as  fully  as  it 
had  been  expressed  before,  in  any  suitable  words  that  should  occur 
to  me.  Then  I  compared  my  Spectator  with  the  original,  dis- 
covered some  of  my  faults,  and  corrected  them.  But  I  found  I 
wanted  a  stock  of  words,  or  a  readiness  in  recollecting  and  using 
them,  which  I  thought  I  should  have  acquired  before  that  time  if  I 
had  gone  on  making  verses  ;  since  the  continual  search  for  words 
of  the  same  import,  but  of  different  length,  to  suit  the  measure,  or 
of  different  sound  for  the  rhyme,  would  have  laid  me  under  a  con- 
stant necessity  of  searching  for  variety,  and  also  have  tended  to 
fix  that  variety  in  my  mind,  and  make  me  master  of  it.  There- 
fore, I  took  some  of  the  tales  in  the  Spectator,  and  turned  them 
into  verse  ;  and  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well  forgotten  the 
prose,  turned  them  back  again.  I  also  sometimes  jumbled  my 
collection  of  hints  into  confusion  ;  and,  after  some  weeks,  endea- 
vored to  reduce  them  into  the  best  order,  before  I  began  to  form 
the  full  sentences  and  complete  the  subject.  This  was  to  teach 
me  method  in  the  arrangement  of  the  thoughts.  By  comparing 
my  work  with  the  original,  I  discovered  many  faults,  and  corrected 
them ;  but  I  sometimes  had  the  pleasure  to  fancy  that  in  certain 
particulars  of  small  consequence  I  had  been  fortunate  enough  to 
improve  the  method  or  the  language  ;  and  this  encouraged  me  to 
think  that  I  might,  in  time,  come  to  be  a  tolerable  English  writer, 
of  which  I  was  extremely  ambitious." 


42  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

Even  at  this  early  age  nothing  could  exceed  the  perseverance 
and  self-denial  which  he  displayed,  in  pursuing  his  favorite  object 
of  cultivating  his  mental  faculties  to  the  utmost  of  his  power. 
When  only  sixteen,  he  chanced  to  meet  with  a  book  in  recom- 
mendation of  a  vegetable  diet,  one  of  the  arguments  at  least  in 
favor  of  which  made  an  immediate  impression  upon  him — namely, 
its  greater  cheapness  ;  and  from  this  and  other  considerations,  he 
determined  to  adopt  that  way  of  living  for  the  future.  Having 
taken  this  resolution,  he  proposed  to  his  brother,  if  he  would  give 
him  weekly  only  half  what  his  board  had  hitherto  cost,  to  board 
himself,  an  offer  which  was  immediately  accepted.  He  presently 
found  that  by  adhering  to  his  new  system  of  diet  he  could  still  save 
half  what  his  brother  allowed  him.  "  This,"  says  he,  "  was  an 
additional  fund  for  buying  of  books  :  but  I  had  another  advantage 
in  it.  My  brother  and  the  rest  going  from  the  printing-house  to 
their  meals,  I  remained  there  alone,  and  despatching  presently  my 
light  repast,  (which  was  often  no  more  than  a  biscuit,  or  a  slice  of 
bread,  a  handful  of  raisins,  or  a  tart  from  the  pastrycook's,  and  a 
glass  of  water,)  had  the  rest  of  the  time,  till  their  return,  for  study ; 
in  which  I  made  the  greater  progress,  from  that  greater  clearness 
of  head  and  quicker  apprehension  which  generally  attend  temper- 
ance in  eating  and  drinking."  It  was  about  this  time  that,  by  means 
of  Cocker's  Arithmetic,  he  made  himself  master  of  that  science, 
which  he  had  twice  attempted  in  vain  to  learn  while  at  school ; 
and  that  he  also  obtained  some  acquaintance  with  the  elements  of 
geometry,  by  the  perusal  of  a  Treatise  on  Navigation.  He  men- 
tions, likewise,  among  the  works  which  he  now  read,  Locke  on 
the  Human  Understanding,  and  the  Port-Royal  Art  of  Thinking, 
together  with  two  little  sketches  on  the  arts  of  Logic  and  Rhetoric, 
which  he  found  at  the  end  of  an  English  Grammar,  and  which 
initiated  him  in  the  Socratic  mode  of  disputation,  or  that  way  of 
arguing  by  which  an  antagonist,  by  being  questioned,  is  imper- 
ceptibly drawn  into  admissions  which  are  afterwards  dexterously 
turned  against  him.  Of  this  method  of  reasoning  he  became,  he 
tells  us,  excessively  fond,  finding  it  very  safe  for  himself  and  veiy 
embarrassing  for  those  against  whom  he  used  it ;  but  he  after- 
wards abandoned  it,  apparently  from  a  feeling  that  it  gave  advan- 
tages rather  to  cunning  than  to  truth,  and  was  better  adapted  to 
gain  victories  in  conversation,  than  either  to  convince  or  to 
inform. 

A  few  years  before  this  his  brother  had  begun  to  publish  a 
newspaper,  the  second  that  had  appeared  in  America.  This 
brought  most  of  the  literary  people  of  Boston  occasionally  to  the 
printing-office ;  and  young  Franklin  often  heard  them  conversing 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  40 

about  the  articles  that  appeared  in  the  newspaper,  and  the  appro- 
bation  which  particular  ones  received.  At  last,  inflamed  with  the 
ambition  of  sharing  in  this  sort  of  fame,  he  resolved  to  try  how  a 
communication  of  his  own  would  succeed.  Having  written  his 
paper,  therefore,  in  a  disguised  hand,  he  put  it  at  night  under  the 
door  of  the  printing-office,  where  it  was  found  in  the  morning,  and 
submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the  critics,  when  they  met  as 
usual.  "  They  read  it,"  says  he  ;  "  commented  on  it  in  my  hear- 
ing ;  and  I  had  the  exquisite  pleasure  of  finding  it  met  with  their 
approbation ;  and  that  in  their  different  guesses  at  the  author,  none 
were  named  but  men  of  some  character  among  us  for  learning  and 
ingenuity."  "  I  suppose,"  he  adds,  "  that  I  was  rather  lucky  in 
my  judges,  and  that  they  were  not  really  so  very  good  as  I  then 
believed  them  to  be."  Encouraged,  however,  by  the  success  of 
this  attempt,  he  sent  several  other  pieces  to  the  press  in  the  same 
way,  keeping  his  secret,  till,  as  he  expresses  it,  all  his  fund  of 
sense  for  such  performances  was  exhausted.  He  then  discovered 
himself,  and  immediately  found  that  he  began  to  be  looked  upon 
as  a  person  of  some  consequence  by  his  brother's  literary  ac- 
quaintances. 

This  newspaper  soon  after  afforded  him,  very  unexpectedly,  an 
opportunity  of  extricating  himself  from  his  indenture  to  his  brother, 
who  had  all  along  treated  him  with  great  harshness,  and  to  whom 
his  rising  literary  reputation  only  made  him  more  an  object  of  envy 
and  dislike.  An  article  which  they  had  admitted  having  offended  the 
local  government,  his  brother,  as  proprietor  of  the  paper,  was  not 
only  sentenced  to  a  month's  imprisonment,  but  prohibited  from  any 
longer  continuing  to  print  the  offensive  journal.  In  these  circum- 
stances, it  was  determined  that  it  should  appear  for  the  future  in 
the  name  of  Benjamin,  who  had  managed  it  during  his  brother's 
confinement ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  it  being  alleged  that  the 
former  proprietor  was  only  screening  himself  behind  one  of  his 
apprentices,  the  indenture  by  which  the  latter  was  bound  was 
given  up  to  him ;  he  at  the  same  time,  in  order  to  secure  to  h^s 
brother  the  benefit  of  his  services,  signing  new  indentures  for  the 
remainder  of  his  time,  which  were  to  be  kept  private.  "  A  veiy 
flimsy  scheme  it  was/'  says  Franklin ;  "  however,  it  was  imme- 
diately executed  ;  and  the  paper  was  printed  accordingly  under  my 
name  for  several  months.  At  length  a  fresh  difference  arising 
between  my  brother  and  me,  1  took  upon  me  to  assert  my  freedom, 
presuming  that  he  would  not  venture  to  produce  the  new  indenture. 
It  was  not  fair  in  me  to  take  this  advantage ;  and  this  I  therefore 
reckon  one  of  the  first  errata  of  my  life  ;  but  the  unfairness  of  it 
littCe  with  me,  when  under  the  impressions  of  resentment 
4 


44  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

for  the  blows  his  passion  too  often  urged  him  to  bestow  upon  me, 
though  he  was  otherwise  not  an  ill-natured  man :  perhaps  I  was 
too  saucy  and  provoking." 

Finding,  however,  that  his  brother,  in  consequence  of  this  ex- 
ploit, had  taken  care  to  give  him  such  a  character  to  all  those  of 
his  own  profession  in  Boston,  that  nobody  would  employ  him  there, 
he  now  resolved  to  make  his  way  to  New  York,  the  nearest  place 
where  there  was  a  printer  ;  and  accordingly,  after  selling  his  books 
to  raise  a  little  money,  he  embarked  on  board  a  vessel  for  that 
city,  without  communicating  his  intention  to  his  friends,  who  he 
knew  would  oppose  it.  In  three  days  he  found  himself  at  the  end 
of  his  voyage,  near  three  hundred  miles  from  his  home,  at  the  age 
of  seventeen,  without  the  least  recommendation,  as  he  tells  us,  or 
knowledge  of  any  person  in  the  place,  and  with  very  little  money 
in  his  pocket.  Worst  of  all,  upon  applying  to  the  only  printer 
likely  to  give  him  any  employment,  he  found  that  this  person  had 
nothing  for  him  to  do,  and  that  the  only  way  in  which  he  could 
serve  him  was  by  recommending  him  to  proceed  to  Philadelphia, 
a  hundred  miles  farther,  where  he  had  a  son,  who,  he  believed, 
might  employ  him.  We  are  unable,  however,  to  follow  our  run- 
away  through  all  the  incidents  of  this  journey,  some  of  which  were 
disastrous  enough ;  but  we  cannot  refrain  from  relating  the  follow- 
ing anecdote  :* — Being  troubled,  wherever  he  stopped,  by  the  inqui- 
sitiveness  and  curiosity  of  the  people,  he  was  induced  to  try  an 
expedient  for  silencing  similar  inquiries.  Accordingly,  at  the  next 
place,  as  soon  as  supper  was  laid,  he  called  his  landlord,  when  the 
following  dialogue  took  place  between  them.  "  Pray,  are  you 
married  ?"  "  Yes."  "  What  family  have  you  got  ?"  "  Two 
sons  and  three  daughters."  "  How  many  servants  ?"  "  Two, 
and  an  hostler."  "  Have  you  any  objection  to  my  seeing  them  ?" 
"  None,  I  guess."  "  Then  be  so  good  as  to  desire  them  all  to 
step  here."  This  was  done ;  and  the  whole  being  assembled, 
Franklin  thus  addressed  them :  "  Good  people,  my  name  is  Benja- 
min Franklin — /  am  ~by  trade  a  printer — /  came  from  Boston,  and 
am  going  to  Philadelphia  to  seek  employment — I  am  in  rather 
humble  circumstances,  and  quite  indifferent  to  news  of  any  kind 
unconnected  with  printing.  This  is  all  I  know  of  myself,  and  all 
I  can  possibly  inform  you ;  and  now,  I  hope  you  will  allow  me  to 
take  my  supper  in  quiet." 

The  following  is  Franklin's  most  graphic  description  of  his  first 
appearance  in  Philadelphia.  After  concluding  the  account  of  his 
voyage,  "  I  have  been  the  more  particular,"  says  he,  "  in  this  de- 
scription of  my  journey,  and  shall  be  so  of  my  first  entry  into  that 
city,  that  you  may,  in  your  mind,  compare  such  unlikely  beginnings 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  45 

with  the  figure  I  have  since  made  there.  I  was  in  my  working 
dress,  my  best  clothes  coming  round  by  sea.  I  was  dirty,  from 
my  being  so  long  in  the  boat ;  my  pockets  were  stuffed  out  with 
shirts  and  stockings  ;  and  I  knew  no  one,  nor  where  to  look  for 
lodging.  Fatigued  with  walking,  rowing,  and  the  want  of  sleep, 
I  was  very  hungry ;  and  my  whole  stock  of  cash  consisted  in  a 
single  dollar,  and  about  a  shilling  in  copper  coin,  which  I  gave  to 
the  boatmen  for  my  passage.  At  first  they  refused  it,  on  account 
of  my  having  rowed  ;  but  I  insisted  on  their  taking  it.  Man  is 
sometimes  more  generous  when  he  has  little  money  than  when  he 
has  plenty ;  perhaps  to  prevent  his  being  thought  to  have  but  little. 
I  walked  towards  the  top  of  the  street,  gazing  about  till  near 
Market-street,  where  I  met  a  boy  with  bread.  I  had  often  made 
a  meal  of  dry  bread,  and  inquiring  where  he  had  bought  it,  I  went 
immediately  to  the  baker's  he  directed  me  to.  I  asked  for  bis- 
cuits, meaning  such  as  we  had  at  Boston  ;  that  sort,  it  seems,  was 
not  made  in  Philadelphia.  I  then  asked  for  a  threepenny  loaf, 
and  was  fold  they  had  none.  Not  knowing  the  different  prices, 
nor  the  names  of  the  different  sorts  of  bread,  I  told  him  to  give 
me  three-penny  worth  of  any  sort.  He  gave  me,  accordingly, 
three  great  puffy  rolls.  I  was  surprised  at  the  quantity,  but  took 
it ;  and  having  no  room  in  my  pockets,  walked  off  with  a  roll  under 
each  arm,  and  eating  the  other.  Thus  I  went  up  Market-street, 
as  far  as  Fourth-street,  passing  by  the  door  of  Mr.  Read,  my  future 
wife's  father,  when  she,  standing  at  the  door,  saw  me,  and  thought 
I  made,  as  I  certainly  did,  a  most  awkward,  ridiculous  appearance. 
Then  I  turned  and  went  down  Chesnut-street  and  part  of  Walnut- 
street,  eating  my  roll  all  the  way,  and  coming  round,  found  myself 
again  at  Market-street  wharf,  near  the  boat  I  came  in,  to  which  I 
went  for  a  draught  of  the  river  water ;  and  being  filled  with  one 
of  my  rolls,  gave  the  other  two  to  a  worik  n  and  her  child  that 
came  down  the  river  in  the  boat  with  us,  and  were  waiting  to  go 
farther.  Thus  refreshed,  I  walked  again  up  the  street,  which  by 
this  time  had  many  clean  dressed  people  in  it,  who  were  all  walk- 
ing the  same  way.  I  joined  them,  and  thereby  was  led  into  the 
great  meeting-house  of  the  Quakers,,  near  the  market.  I  sat  down 
among  them ;  and  after  looking  round  a  while,  and  hearing  noth- 
ing said,  being  very  drowsy,  through  labor  and  want  of  rest  the 
preceding  night,  I  fell  fast  asleep,  and  continued  so  till  the  meeting 
broke  up,  when  some  one  was  kind  enough  to  rouse  me.  This, 
therefore,  was  the  first  house  I  was  in,  or  slept  in,  in  Phila- 
delphia." 

Refreshed  by  his  brief  sojourn  in  this  cheap  place  of  repose, 
he  then  set  out  in  quest  of  a  lodging  for  the  night.    Next  morning 


46  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

he  found  the  person  to  whom  he  had  been  directed,  who  was  not, 
however,  able  to  give  him  any  employment ;  but  upon  applying  to 
another  printer  in  the  place,  of  the  name  of  Keimer,  he  was  a  little 
more  fortunate,  being  set  by  him,  in  the  first  instance,  to  put  an 
old  press  to  rights,  and  afterwards  taken  into  regular  work.  He 
had  been  some  months  at  Philadelphia,  his  relations  in  Boston 
knowing  nothing  of  what  had  become  of  him,  when  a  brother-in- 
law,  who  was  the  master  of  a  trading  sloop,  happening  to  hear  of 
him  in  one  of  his  voyages,  wrote  to  him  in  very  earnest  terms  to 
entreat  him  to  return  home.  The  letter  which  he  sent  in  reply 
to  this  application  reaching  his  brother-in-law  when  he  chanced  to 
be  in  company  with  Sir  William  Keith,  the  governor  of  the  pro- 
vince, it  was  shown  to  that  gentleman,,  who  expressed  considerable 
surprise  on  being  told  the  age  of  the  writer ;  and  immediately 
said  that  he  appeared  to  be  a  young  man  of  promising  parts,  and 
that  if  he  would  set  up  on  his  own  account  in  Philadelphia,  where 
the  printers  were  wretched  ones,  he  had  no  doubt  he  would  suc- 
ceed ;  for  his  part  he  would  procure  him  the  public  business,  and 
do  him  every  service  in  his  power.  Some  time  after  this,  Frank- 
lin, who  knew  nothing  of  what  had  taken  place,  was  one  day  at 
work  along  with  his  master  near  the  window,  when  "  we  saw,'* 
says  he,  "  the  governor  and  another  gentleman,  (who  proved  to 
be  Colonel  French,  of  Newcastle,  in  the  province  of  Delaware,) 
finely  dressed,  come  directly  across  the  street  to  our  house,  and 
heard  them  at  the  door.  Keimer  ran  down  immediately,  thinking 
it  a  visit  to  him :  but  the  governor  inquired  for  me,  came  up,  and, 
with  a  condescension  and  politeness  I  had  been  quite  unused  tof 
made  me  many  compliments,  desired  to,  be  acquainted  with  me,, 
blamed  me  kindly  for  not  having  made  myself  known  to.  him  when 
I  first  came  to  the  place,  and  would  have  me  away  with  him  to. 
the  tavern,  where  he  was  going  with  Colonel  French,  to  taste,  as 
he  said,  some  excellent  Madeira..  I  was  not  a.  little  surprised,  and 
Keimer  stared  with  astonishment." 

The  reader  already  perceives  that  Sir  William  must  have  been 
rather  an  odd  sort  of  person ;  and  this  becomes  still,  more  apparent 
in  the  sequel  of  the  story.  Having  got  his  young  protege  to  the 
tavern,  he  proposed  to,  him,  over  their  wine,  that  he  should,  as 
soon  as  possible*  set  up. in  Philadelphia  as  a  master  printer,  only 
continuing  to  work  with  Keimer  till  an  opportunity  should  offer  of 
a  passage  to  Boston,  when  he  would  return  home,  to  arrange  the 
matter  with  his  father,  who,,  the  governor  had  no  doubt,  would, 
upon  a  letter  from  him,  at  once  advance  his  son  the  necessary 
funds  for  commencing  business.  Accordingly,  Franklin  set  out 
for  Boston  by  the  first  vessel  that,  sailed ;  and,,  upon  his  arrival, 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  47 

was  very  kindly  received  by  all  his  family,  except  his  brother,  and 
surprised  his  father  not  a  little  by  presenting  him  with  the  governor's 
letter.  For  some  time  his  father  said  little  or  nothing  on  the  sub- 
ject, merely  remarking,  that  Sir  William  must  be  a  person  of  small 
discretion,  to  think  of  setting  a  youth  up  in  business  who  wanted 
three  years  to  arrive  at  man's  estate.  But  at  last  he  decidedly  re- 
fused  to  have  any  thing  to  do  with  the  arrangement ;  and  Franklin 
returned  to  his  patron  to  tell  him  of  his  bad  success,  going  this 
time,  however,  with  the  consent  and  blessing  of  his  parents,  who 
finding  how  industrious  he  had  been  while  in  Philadelphia,  were 
willing  that  he  should  continue  there.  When  Franklin  presented 
himself  to  Sir  William  with  his  father's  answer  to  the  letter  he  had 
been  honored  with  from  that  functionary,  the  governor  observed  that 
he  was  too  prudent :  "  but  since  he  will  not  set  you  up,"  added  he, 
"I  will  do  it  myself,"  It  was  finally  agreed  that  Franklin  should 
proceed  in  person  to  England,  to  purchase  types  and  other  necessary 
articles,  for  which  the  governor  was  to  give  him  letters  of  credit  to 
the  extent  of  one  hundred  pounds. 

After  repeated  applications  to  the  governor  for  the  promised 
letters  of  credit,  Franklin  was  at  last  sent  on  board  the  vessel  for  Eng- 
land, which  was  just  on  the  point  of  sailing,,  with  an  assurance  that 
Colonel  French  should  be  sent  to  him  with  the  letters  immediately. 
That  gentleman  soon  after  made  his  appearance,,  bearing  a  packet 
of  despatches  from  the  governor :  in  this  packet  Franklin  was  in- 
formed his  letters  were.  Accordingly,  when  they  got  into  the  Britsh 
channel,  the  captain  having  allowed  him  to  search  for  them  among 
the  others,  he  found  several  addressed  to  his  care,  which  he  con- 
cluded of  course  to  be  those  he  had  been  promised.  Upon  pre- 
senting one  of  them,  however,  to  a  stationer  to  whom  it  was  directed, 
the  man  having  opened  it,  merely  said, "  Oh,  this  is  from  Riddlesdon 
(an  attorney  in  Philadelphia,  whom  Franklin  knew  to  be  a  thorough 
knave ;)  I  have  lately  found  him  to  be  a  complete  rascal ;"  and 
giving  back  the  letter,  turned  on  his  heel,  and  proceeded  to  serve 
his  customers.  Upon  this,  Franklin's  confidence  in  his  patron 
began  to  be  a  little  shaken  ;  and,,  after  reviewing  the  whole  affair 
in  his  own  mind,  he  resolved  to  lay  it  before  a  very  intelligent 
mercantile  gentleman,  who  had  come  over  from  America  with 
them,  and  with  whom  he  had  contracted  an  intimacy  on  the  passage. 
This  friend  very  soon  put  an  end  to*  his  doubts.  "He  let  me," 
says  Franklin,  "-into  Keith's  character;  told  me  there  was  not 
the  least  probability  that  he  had  written  any  letters  for  me ;  that 
no  one  who  knew  him  had  the  smallest  dependence  on  him  ;  and 
he  laughed  at  the  idea  of  the  governor's  giving  me  a  letter  of  credit,, 
having,  as  he  said,  no  credit  to  give." 

4* 


48  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

Thus  thrown  once  more  on  his  own  means,,  our  young  adven- 
turer found  there  was  no  resource  for  him  but  to  endeavor  to  procure 
some  employment  at  his  trade  in  London.  Accordingly,  having 
applied  to  a  Mr.  Palmer,  a  printer  of  eminence  in  Bartholomew- 
close,  his  services  were  accepted,  and  he  remained  there  for  nearly 
a  year.  During  this  time,  although  he  was  led  into  a  good  deal  of 
idleness  by  the  example  of  a  friend,  somewhat  older  than  himself, 
he  by  no  means  forgot  his  old  habits  of  reading  and  study.  Having 
been  employed  in  printing  a  second  edition  of  Wollaston's  Religion 
of  Nature,  his  perusal  of  the  work  induced  him  to  compose  and 
publish  a  small  pamphlet  in  refutation  of  some  of  the  author's 
positions,  which,  he  tells  us,  he  did  not  afterwards  look  back  upon 
as  altogether  a  wise  proceeding.  He  employed  the  greater  part 
of  his  leisure  more  profitably  in  reading  a  great  many  works,  which 
(circulating  libraries,  he  remarks,,  not  being  then  in.  use)  he  bor- 
rowed, on  certain  terms  that  were  agreed  upon  between  them,  from 
a  bookseller  whose  shop  was.  next  door  ta  his  lodgings  in  Little 
Britain,  and  who  had  an  immense  collection  of  second-hand  books. 
His  pamphlet,  however,  was  the  means  of  making  him  known  to  a 
few  of  the  literary  characters  then  in  London,  among  the  rest  to 
the  noted  Dr.  Mandeville,  author  of  the  Fable  of  the  Bees  ;  and  to 
Dr.  Pemberton,  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  friend,  who  promised  to  give 
him  an  opportunity,  some  time  or  other,  of  seeing  that  great  man  : 
but  this,  he  says,  never  happened.  He  also  became  acquainted 
about  the  same  time  with  the  famous  collector  and  naturalist,  Sir 
Hans  Sloane,  the  Founder  of  the  British  Museum,  who  had  heard 
of  some,  curiositjes  which  Franklin  had  brought  over  from  America ; 
among  these  was  a  purse  made  of  asbestos^  which  he  purchased  from 
him. 

While  with  Mr.  Palmer,  and  afterwards  with  Mr.  Watts,  near 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  he  gave  very  striking  evidence  of  those  habits 
of  temperance,  self-command,  industry,  and  frugality,  which  distin- 
guished him  through  after  life,,  and  were  undoubtedly  the  source 
of  much  of  the  success  that  attended  his  persevering  efforts  to  raise 
himself  from  the  humble  condition  in  which  he  passed  his  earlier 
years.  While  Mr.  Watts's  other  workmen  spent  a  great  part  of 
every  week's  wages  on  beer,  he  drank  only  water,  and  found  him- 
self a  good  deal  stronger,  as  well  as  much  more  clear  headed,,  on 
his  light  beverage,,  than  they  on  their  strong  potations.  "  From 
my  example,"  says  he>  "a  great  many  of  them  left  off  their  mud- 
dling breakfast  of  beer,  bread,  and  cheese,  finding  they  could  with 
me  be  supplied  from  a  neighboring  house  with  a  large  porringer  of 
hot  water-gruel,,  sprinkled  with  pepper,  crumbled  with  bread,  and 
and  a  bit  of  butter  in  it,  for  the  price  of  a  pint  of  beer,  viz, — three 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,  49 

half-pence.  This  was  a  more  comfortable,  as  well  as  a  cheaper 
breakfast,  and  kept  their  heads  clearer.  Those  who  continued 
sotting  with  their  beer  all  day,  were  often,  by  not  paying,  out  of 
credit  at  the  alehouse,  and  used  to  make  interest  with  me  to  get 
beer, — their  liglit,  as  they  phrased  it,  being  out.  I  watched  the 
pay-table  on  Saturday  night,  and  collected  what  I  stood  engaged 
for  them,  having  to  pay  sometimes  near  thirty  shillings  a  week  on 
their  accounts.  This,,  and  my  being  esteemed  a  pretty  good 
riggite,  that  is,  a  jocular  verbal  satirist,  supported  my  consequence 
in  the  society.  My  constant  attendance  (I  never  making  a  St. 
Monday}  recommended  me  to  the  master ;  and  my  uncommon 
quickness  at  composing  occasioned  my  being  put  upon  works  of 
despatch,  which  are  generally  better  paid  ;  so  I  went  on  now  very 
agreeably." 

He  spent  about  eighteen  months  altogether  in  London,  during 
most  part  of  which  time  he  worked  hard,  he  says,  at  his  business, 
and  spent  but  little  upon  himself  except  in  seeing  plays,  and  in 
books.  At  last  his  friend  Mr.  Denham,  the  gentleman  with  whom, 
as  we  mentioned  before,  he  had  got  acquainted  on  his  voyage  to 
England,  informed  him  he  was  going  to  return  to  Philadelphia  to 
open  a  store,  or  mercantile  establishment,  there,  and  offered  him 
the  situation  of  his  clerk  at  a  salary  of  fifty  pounds.  The  money 
was  less  than  he  was  now  making  as  a  compositor ;  but  he  longed 
to  see  his  native  country  again,  and  accepted  the  proposal.  Ac- 
cordingly they  set  sail  together  ;  and,  after  a  long  voyage,  arrived 
in  Philadelphia  on  the  llth  of  October,  1726.  Franklin  was  at 
this  time  only  in  his  twenty-first  year ;  and  he  mentions  having 
formed,  and  committed  to  writing,  while  at  sea,  a  plan  for  regulating 
the  future  conduct  of  his  life.  This  unfortunately  has  been  lost ; 
but  he  tells  us  himself,  that  although  conceived  and  determined 
upon  when  he  was  so  young,  it  had  yet  "  been  pretty  faithfully 
adhered  to  quite  through  to  old  age." 

Mr.  Denham  had  only  begun  business  for  a  few  months  when 
he  died  ;  and  Franklin  was  once  more  left  upon  the  world.  He 
now  engaged  again  with  his  old  master,  Keimer,  the  printer,  who 
had  got  a  better  house,  and  plenty  of  new  types,  though  he  was 
still  as  ignorant  of  his  business  as  he  was  at  the  time  of  Franklin's 
former  connection  with  him.  While  in  this  situation  Franklin  got 
acquainted  with  several  persons,  like  himself,  fond  of  literary  pur- 
suits ;  and  as  the  men  never  worked  on  Saturday,  that  being 
Keimer's  self-appointed  Sabbath,  he  had  the  whole  day  for  reading.* 

*  Keimer  had  peculiar  notions  upon  religious  observances,  and  amongst  other 
tilings,  fancied  it  a  Christian  duty  to  observe  the  Sabbath  on  the  last  day  of  the 


50  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

He  also  showed  his  ingenuity,  and  the  fertility  of  his  resources,  on 
various  occasions.  They  wanted  some  new  types,  which,  there 
being  no  letter-foundry  in  America,  were  only  to  be  procured  from 
England  ;  but  Franklin,  having  seen  types  cast  in  London,  though  he 
had  paid  no  particular  attention  to  the  process,  contrived  a  mould, 
made  use  of  the  letters  they  had  as  punches,  struck  the  matrices 
in  lead,  and  thus  supplied,  as  he  tells  us,,  in  a  pretty  tolerable  way, 
all  deficiencies.  "I  also,"  he  adds,  "engraved  several  things,  on 
occasion ;  made  the  ink ;  I  was  warehouseman ;  and,  in  short, 
quite  a  factotum." 

He  did  not,  however,  remain  long  with  Keimeiy  who  had  engaged 
him  only  that  he  might  have  his  other  workmen  taught  through 
his  means ;  and,  accordingly,  when  this  object  was  in  some  sort 
attained,  contrived  to  pick  a  quarrel  with  him,  which  produced  an 
immediate  separation.  He  then  entered  into  an  agreement  with 
one  of  his  fellow-workmen,  of  the  name  of  Meredith,  whose  friends 
were  possessed  of  money,  to  begin  business  in  Philadelphia  in  compa- 
ny with  him,  the  understanding  being  that  Franklin's  skill  should  be 
placed  against  the  capital  to  be  supplied  by  Meredith.  While  he  and 
his  friend,  however,  were  secretly  preparing  to  put  their  plan  in  exe- 
cution, he  was  induced  to  return  for  a  few  months  to  Keimer,  on  his 
earnest  invitation,  to  enable  him  to  perform  a  contract  for  the 
printing  of  some  paper  money  for  the  State  of  New  Jersey,,  which 
required  a  variety  of  cuts  and  types  that  nobody  else  in  the  place 
could  supply ;  and  the  two  having  gone  together  to  Burlington  to 
superintend  this  business,  Franklin  was  fortunate  enough,.,  during 
the  three  months  he  remained  in  that  city,  to  acquire,  by  his 
agreeable  manners  and  intelligent  conversation,  the  friendship  of 
several  of  the  principal  inhabitants,  with  whom  his  employment 
brought  him  into  connection.  Among  these  he  mentions  particu- 
larly Isaac  Decow,  the  surveyor-general.  "iHe  was,'ysays  Frank- 
lin, "  a  shrewd,  sagacious,  old  man,,  who  told  me  that  he  began  for 
himself,  when  young,  by  wheeling  clay  for  the  brickrnakers,  learned 
to  write  after  he  was  of  age,  carried  the  chain  for  surveyors,  who 
taught  him  surveying,  and  he  had  now  by  his  industry  acquired  a 
good  estate;  and,  said  he,  I  foresee  that  you  will  soon  work  this 
man  (Keimer)  out  of  his  business,  and  make  a  fortune  in  it  at 
Philadelphia.  He  had  then  not  the  least  intimation  of  my  intention 
to  set  up  there  or  any  where." 

Soon  after  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  the  types  that  had  been 
sent  for  from  London  arrived  ;  and,  settling  with  Keimer,  he  and 
his  partner  took  a  house,  and  commenced  business.  "  We  had 
scarce  opened  our  letters,"  says  he,  "  and  put  our  press  in  order, 
before  George  House,  an  acquaintance  of  mine,  brought  a  coun- 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN.  51 

tryman  to  us,  whom  he  had  met  in  the  street,  inquiring  for  a 
printer.  All  our  cash  was  now  expended  in  the  variety  of  parti, 
culars  we  had  been  obliged  to  procure,  and  this  countryman's  five 
shillings,  being  our  first-fruits,  and  coming  so  seasonably,  gave  me 
more  pleasure  than  any  crown  I  have  since  earned ;  and,  from  the 
gratitude  I  felt  towards  House,  has  made  me  often  more  ready 
than  perhaps  I  otherwise  should  have  been,  to  assist  young  begin- 
ners."  He  had,  in  the  autumn  of  the  preceding  year,  suggested 
to  a  number  of  his  acquaintances  a  scheme  for  forming  themselves 
into  a  club  for  mutual  improvement ;  and  they  had  accordingly 
been  in  the  habit  of  meeting  every  Friday  evening,  under  the  name 
of  the  Junto.  All  the  members  of  this  association  exerted  them- 
selves in  procuring  business  for  him ;  and  one  of  them,  named 
Breinthal,  obtained  from  the  Quakers  the  printing  of  forty  sheets 
of  a  history  of  that  sect  of  religionists,  then  preparing  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  body.  "  Upon  these,"  says  Franklin,  "  we  worked 
exceeding  hard,  for  the  price  was  low.  It  was  a  folio.  I  com- 
posed a  sheet  a  day,  and  Meredith  worked  it  off  at  press.  It  was 
often  eleven  at  night,  and  sometimes  later,  before  I  had  finished 
iny  distribution  for  the  next  day's  work  :  for  the  little  jobs  sent  in 
by  our  other  friends,  now  and  then,  put  us  back.  But  so  deter- 
mined was  I  to  continue  doing  a  sheet  a  day  of  the  folio,  that  one 
night,  when,  having  imposed  my  forms,  I  thought  my  day's  work 
over,  one  of  them  by  accident  was  broken,  and  two  pages  (the 
half  of  the  day's  work)  reduced  to  pi,  I  immediately  distributed 
and  composed  it  over  again  before  I  went  to  bed ;  and  this  indus- 
try, visible  to  our  neighbors,  began  to  give  us  character  and  credit." 
The  consequence  was  that  business,  and  even  offers  of  credit, 
came  to  them  from  all  hands. 

They  soon  found  themselves  in  a  condition  to  think  of  establish- 
ing a  newspaper ;  but  Franklin  having  inadvertently  mentioned 
this  scheme  to  a  person  who  came  to  him  wanting  employment, 
that  individual  carried  the  secret  to  their  old  master,  Keirncr,  with 
whom  he,  as  well  as  themselves,  had  formerly  worked  ;  and  he 
immediately  determined  to  anticipate  them  by  issuing  proposals 
for  a  paper  of  his  own.  The  manner  in  which  Franklin  met  and 
defeated  this  treachery  is  exceedingly  characteristic.  There  was 
another  paper  published  in  the  place,  which  had  been  in  existence 
for  some  years  ;  but  it  was  altogether  a  wretched  affair,  and  owed 
what  success  it  had  merely  to  the  absence  of  all  competition.  For 
tjiis  print,  however,  Franklin,  not  being  able  to  commence  his  own 
paper  immediately,  in  conjunction  with  a  friend,  set  about  writing 
a  series  of  amusing  communications  under  the  title  of  the  Busy 
Body,  which  the  publisher  printed,  of  course,  very  gladly.  "  By 


52  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

this  means,"  says  he,  "  the  attention  of  the  public  was  fixed  on 
that  paper ;  and  Keimer's  proposals,  which  we  burlesqued  and 
ridiculed,  were  disregarded.  He  began  his  paper,  however ;  and 
before  carrying  it  on  three-quarters  of  a  year,  with  at  most  only 
ninety  subscribers,  he  offered  it  me  for  a  trifle  ;  and  I,  having 
been  ready  some  time  to  go  on  with  it,  took  it  in  hand  directly, 
and  it  proved  in  a  few  years  extremely  profitable  to  me."  The 
paper,  indeed,  had  no  sooner  got  into  Franklin's  hands  than  its 
success  equalled  his  most  sanguine  expectations.  Some  observa- 
tions which  he  wrote  and  printed  in  it  on  a  colonial  subject,  then 
much  talked  of,  excited  so  much  attention  among  the  leading 
people  of  the  place,  that  it  obtained  the  proprietors  many  friends 
in  the  house  of  assembly,  and  they  were,  on  the  first  opportunity* 
appointed  printers  to  the  house.  Fortunately,  too,  certain  events 
occurred  about  this  time  which  ended  in  the  dissolution  of  Frank- 
lin's  connection  with  Meredith,  who  was  an  idle,,  drunken  fellow,, 
and  had  all  along  been  a  mere  encumbrance  upon  the  concern. 
His  father  failing  to  advance  the  capital  which  had  been  agreed 
upon,  when  payment  was  demanded  at  the  usual  time  by  their 
paper  merchant  and  other  creditors,,  he  proposed  to  Franklin  to 
relinquish  the  partnership,  and  leave  the  whole  in  his  hands,  if  the 
latter  would  take  upon  him  the  debis  of  the  company,,  return  to  his 
father  what  he  had  advanced  on  their  comrsjencing  business,,  pay 
his  little  personal  debts,  and  give  him  thirty  pounds  and  a  new 
saddle.  By  the  kindness  of  two  friends,  who,,  unknown  to  each 
other,  came  forward  unasked  to  tender  their  assistance,  Franklin 
was  enabled  to  accept  of  this  proposal ;  and  thus,,  about  the  year 
1729,  when  he  was  yet  only  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his  age, 
he  found  himself,  after  all  his  disappointments  and  vicissitudes, 
with  nothing,  indeed,  to  depend  upon  but  his  own  skill  and  indus- 
try for  gaining  a  livelihood,  and  for  extricating  himself  from  debt, 
but  yet  in  one  sense  fairly  established  in  life,,  and  with  at  least  a 
prospect  of  well-doing  before  him. 

Having  followed  his  course  thus  far  with  so  minute  an  observ- 
ance of  the  several  steps  by  which  he  arrived  at  the  point  to  which 
we  have  now  brought  him,  we  shall  not  attempt  to  pursue  the  re- 
mainder of  his  career  with  the  same  particularity.  His  subse- 
quent efforts  in  the  pursuit  of  fortune  and  independence  were,  as 
is  well  known,  eminently  successful ;  and  we  find  in  his  whole 
history,  even  to  its  close,  a  display  of  the  same  spirit  of  intelli- 
gence and  love  of  knowledge,  and  the  same  active,  self-denying, 
and  intrepid  virtues,  which  so  greatly  distinguished  its  commence- 
ment. The  publication  of  a  pamphlet,  soon  after  Meredith  had 
left  him,  in  recommendation  of  a  paper  currency,  a  subject  then 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  53 

much  debated  in  the  province,  obtained  him  such  popularity,  that 
he  was  employed  by  the  government  in  printing  the  notes  after 
they  had  resolved  upon  issuing  them.  Other  profitable  business 
of  the  same  kind  succeeded.  He  then  opened  a  stationer's  shop, 
began  gradually  to  pay  off  his  debts,  and  soon  after  married.  By 
this  time  his  old  rival,  Keimer,  had  gone  to  ruin;  and  he -was 
(with  the  exception  of  an  old  man,  who  was  rich,  and  did  not  care 
about  business,)  the  only  printer  in  the  place.  We  now  find  him 
taking  a  leading  part  as  a  citizen.  He  established  a  circulating 
library,  the  first  ever  known  in  America,  which,  although  it  com- 
menced with  only  fifty  subscribers,  became  in  course  of  time  a 
large  and  valuable  collection,  the  proprietors  of  which  were  event- 
ually incorporated  by  royal  charter.  While  yet  in  its  infancy, 
however^  it  afforded  its  founder  facilities  of  improvement  of  which 
he  did  not  fail  to  avail  himself,  setting  apart,  as  he  tells  us,  an 
hour  or  two  every  day  for  study,  which  was  the  only  amusement 
he  allowed  himself.  In  1732  he  first  published  his  celebrated 
Almanac,  under  the  name  of  Richard  Saunders,  but  which  was 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Poor  Richard's  Almanac.  He 
continued  this  publication  annually  for  twenty-five  years.  The 
proverbs  and  pithy  sentences  scattered  up  and  down  in  the  differ- 
ent numbers  of  it,  were  afterwards  thrown  together  into  a  con- 
nected discourse  under  the  title  of  the  Way  to  Wealth,  a  produc- 
tion which  has  become  so  extensively  popular,  that  every  one  of 
our  readers  is  probably  familiar  with  it. 

We  shall  quote,  in  his  own  words,  the  account  he  gives  us  of 
the  manner  in  which  he  pursued  one  branch  of  his  studies  : — '• 

"  I  had  begun,"  says  he,  "  in  1733,  to  study  languages.  I  soon 
made  myself  so  much  a  master  of  the  French,  as  to  be  able  to 
read  the  books  in  that  language  with  ease.  I  then  undertook  the 
Italian.  An  acquaintance,  who  was  also  learning  it,  used  often  to 
tempt  me  to  play  chess  with  him.  Finding  this  took  up  too  much 
of  the  time  I  had  to  spare  for  study,  I  at  length  refused  to  play 
any  more,  unless  on  this  condition,  that  the  victor  in  every  game 
should  have  a  right  to  impose  a  task,  either  of  parts  of  the  gram- 
mar to  be  got  by  heart,  or  in  translations,  &c.,  which  tasks  the 
vanquished  was  to  perform  upon  honor  before  our  next  meeting. 
As  we  played  pretty  equally,  we  thus  beat  one  another  into  that 
language.  I  afterwards,  with  a  little  pains-taking,  acquired  as 
much  of  the  Spanish  as  to  read  their  books  also.  I  have  already 
mentioned  that  I  had  had  only  one  year's  instruction  in  a  Latin 
school,  and  that  when  very  young,  after  which  I  neglected  that 
language  entirely.  But  when  I  had  attained  an  acquaintance 
with  the  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish,  I  was  surprised  to  find,  on 


54  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

looking  over  a  Latin  Testament,  that  I  understood  more  of  that 
language  than  I  had  imagined,  which  encouraged  me  to  apply 
myself  again  to  the  study  of  it ;  and  I  met  with  the  more  success, 
as  those  preceding  languages  had  greatly  smoothed  my  way." 

In  1736  he  was  chosen  clerk  of  the  general  assembly,  and  being 
soon  after  appointed  deputy  postmaster  for  the  state,  he  turned  his 
thoughts  to  public  affairs,  beginning,  however,  as  he  says*  with 
small  matters.  He  first  occupied  himself  in  improving  the  city 
watch ;  then  suggested  and  promoted  the  establishment  of  a  fire- 
insurance  company ;  and  afterwards  exerted  himself  in  organizing 
a  philosophical  society,  an  academy  for  the  education  of  youth, 
and  a  militia  for  the  defence  of  the  province.  In  short,  every 
part  of  the  civil  government,  as  he  tells  us,  and  almost  at  the 
same  time,  imposed  some  duty  upon  him.  "  The  governor,"  he 
says,  "  put  me  into  the  commission  of  the  peace  ;  the  corporation 
of  the  city  chose  me  one  of  the  common  council,  and  soon  after 
alderman  ;  and  the  citizens  at  large  elected  me  a  burgess  to  repre- 
sent them  in  assembly.  This  latter  station  was  the  more  agreable 
to  me,  as  I  grew  at  length  tired  with  sitting  there  to  hear  the  de- 
bates, in  which,  as  clerk,  I  could  take  no  part,  and  which  were 
often  so  uninteresting  that  I  was  induced  to  amuse  myself  with 
making  magic  squares  or  circles,  or  any  thing  to  avoid  weariness  ; 
and  I  conceived  my  becoming  a  member  would  enlarge  my  power 
of  doing  good.  I  would  not,  however,  insinuate  that  my  ambition 
was  not  flattered  by  all  these  promotions, — it  certainly  was  :  for, 
considering  my  low  beginning,  they  were  great  things  to  me  ;  and 
they  were  still  more  pleasing  as  being  so  many  spontaneous  testi- 
monies of  the  public  good  opinion,  and  by  me  entirely  unsolicited." 

It  is  time,  however,  that  we  should  introduce  this  extraordinary 
man  to  our  readers  in  a  new  character.  A  much  more  important 
part  in  civil  affairs  than  any  he  had  yet  acted  was  in  reserve  for 
him.  He  lived  to  attract  to  himself  on  the  theatre  of  politics,  the 
eyes,  not  of  his  own  countrymen  only,  but  of  the  whole  civilized 
world ;  and  to  be  a  principal  agent  in  the  production  of  events  as 
mighty  in  themselves,  and  as  pregnant  with  mighty  consequences, 
as  any  belonging  to  modern  history.  But  our  immediate  object  is 
to  exhibit  a  portrait  of  the  diligent  student,  and  of  the  acute  and 
patient  philosopher.  We  have  now  to  speak  of  Franklin's  famous 
electrical  discoveries.  Of  these  discoveries  we  cannot,  of  course, 
here  attempt  to  give  any  thing  more  than  a  very  general  account. 
But  we  shall  endeavor  to  make  our  statement  as  intelligible  as 
possible,  even  to  those  to  whom  the  subject  is  new. 

The  term  electricity  is  derived  from  electron,  the  Greek  name 
for  amber,  which  was  known,  even  in  ancient  times,  to  be  capable 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  55 

of  acquiring,  by  being  rubbed,  the  curious  property  of  attracting 
very  light  bodies,  such  as  small  bits  of  paper,  when  brought  near 
to  them.  This  virtue  was  thought  to  be  peculiar  to  the  substance 
in  question,  and  one  or  two  others,  down  to  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  when  William  Gilbert,  a  physician  of  London,  an- 
nounced for  the  first  time,  in  his  Latin  treatise  on  the  magnet,  that 
it  belonged  equally  to  the  diamond  and  many  other  precious  stones ; 
to  glass,  sulphur,  sealing  wax,  rosin,  and  a  variety  of  other  sub- 
stances. It  is  from  this  period  that  we  are  to  date  the  birth  of  the 
science  of  Electricity,  which,  however,  continued  in  its  infancy  for 
above  a  century,  and  could  hardly,  indeed,  be  said  to  consist  of  any 
tiling  more  than  a  collection  of  unsystematized  and  ill-understood 
facts,  until  it  attracted  the  attention  of  Franklin. 

Among  the  facts,  however,  that  had  been  discovered  in  this  in- 
terval, the  following  were  the  most  important.  In  the  first  place,  the 
list  of  the  substances  capable  of  being  excited  by  friction  to  a  mani- 
festation of  electric  virtue,  was  considerably  extended.  It  was 
also  found  that  the  bodies  which  had  been  attracted  by  the  excited 
substance  were  immediately  after  as  forcibly  repelled  by  it,  and 
could  not  be  again  attracted  until  they  had  touched  a  third  body. 
Other  phenomena,  too,  besides  those  of  attraction  and  repulsion, 
were  found  to  take  place  when  the  body  excited  was  one  of  suffi- 
cient magnitude.  If  any  other  body,  not  capable  of  being  excited, 
such  as  the  human  hand  or  a  rod  of  metal,  was  presented  to  it,  a 
slight  sound  would  be  produced,  which,  if  the  experiment  was  per- 
formed in  a  dark  room,  would  be  accompanied  with  a  momentary 
light.  Lastly,  it  was  discovered  that  the  electric  virtue  might  be 
imparted  to  bodies  not  capable  of  being  themselves  excited,  by 
making  such  a  body,  when  insulated,  that  is  to  say,  separated  from 
all  other  bodies  of  the  same  class  by  the  intervention  of  one  capable 
of  excitation,  act  either  as  the  rubber  of  the  excited  body,  or  as 
the  drawer  of  a  succession  of  sparks  from  it,  in  the  manner  that 
has  just  been  described.  It  was  said,  in  either  of  these  cases,  to 
be  electrified ;  and  it  was  found  that  if  it  was  touched,  or  even 
closely  approached,  when  in  this  state,  by  any  other  body,  in  like 
manner  incapable  of  being  excited  by  friction,  a  pretty  loud  report 
would  take  place,  accompanied,  if  either  body  were  susceptible  of 
feeling,  with  a  slight  sensation  of  pain  at  the  point  of  contact,  and 
which  would  instantly  restore  the  electrified  body  to  its  usual  and 
natural  condition. 

In  consequence  of  its  thus  appearing  that  all  those  bodies,  and 
only  those,  which  could  not  be  themselves  excited,  might  in  this 
manner  have  electricity,  as  it  were,  transferred  to  them,  they  were 
designated  conductors,  as  well  as  non-electrics :  while  all  electrics, 

5 


56  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

on  the  other  hand,  were  also  called  non-conductors.  It  is  proper,  how- 
ever, that  the  reader  should  be  aware,  that  of  the  various  substances 
in  nature,  none,  strictly  speaking,  belong  exclusively  to  either  of 
these  classes ;  the  truth  being  merely,  that  different  bodies  admit 
the  passage  of  the  electric  influence  with  extremely  different  de- 
grees of  facility,  and  that  those  which  transmit  it  readily  are  called 
conductors, — the  metals,  and  fluids,  and  living  animals  particularly 
belonging  to  this  class ;  while  such  as  resist  its  passage,  or  permit 
it  only  with  extreme  reluctance, — among  which  are  amber,  sulphur, 
wax,  glass,  and  silk,  are  described  by  the  opposite  denomination. 

The  beginning  of  the  year  1746  is  memorable  in  the  annals  of 
electricity  for  the  accidental  discovery  of  the  possibility  of  accumu- 
lating large  quantities  of  the  electric  fluid,  by  means  of  what  was 
called  the  Leyden  jar,  or  phial.*  M.  Cuneus,  of  that  city,  happened 
one  day,  while  repeating  some  experiments  which  had  been  origin- 
ally suggested  by  M.  Von  Kleist,  Dean  of  the  Cathedral  in  Camin, 
to  hold  in  one  hand  a  glass  vessel,  nearly  full  of  water,  into  which 
he  had  been  sending  a  charge  from  an  electrical  machine,  by  means 
of  a  wire  dipped  into  it,  and  communicating  with  the  prime  con- 
ductor, or  insulated  non-electric,  exposed  in  the  manner  we  have 
already  mentioned  to  the  action  of  the  excited  cylinder.  He  was 
greatly  surprised,  upon  applying  his  other  hand  to  disengage  the 
wire  from  the  conductor,  when  he  thought  that  the  water  had  acquired 
as  much  electricity  as  the  machine  could  give  it,  by  receiving  a 
sudden  shock  in  his  arms  and  breast,  much  more  severe  than  any 
thing  of  the  kind  he  had  previously  encountered  in  the  course  of 
his  experiments.  The  same  thing,  it  was  found,  took  place  when 
the  glass  was  covered,  both  within  and  without,  with  any  other 
conductors  than  the  water  and  the  human  hand,  which  had  been 
used  in  this  instance  ;  as,  for  example,  when  it  was  coated  on  both 
sides  with  tinfoil,  in  such  a  manner,  however,  that  the  two  coatings 
were  completely  separated  from  each  other,  by  a  space  around  the 
lip  of  the  vessel  being  left  uncovered.  Whenever  a  communi- 
cation was  formed  by  the  interposition  of  a  conducting  medium  be- 
tween the  inside  and  outside  coating,  an  instant  and  loud  explosion 
took  place,  accompanied  with  a  flash  of  light,  and  the  sensation  of  a 
sharp  blow,  if  the  conductor  employed  was  any  part  of  the  human 
body. 

The  first  announcement  of  the  wonders  of  the  Leyden  phial 
excited  the  curiosity  of  all  Europe.  The  accounts  given  of  the 
electric  shock  by  those  who  first  experiencd  it  are  perfectly  ludicrous, 
and  well  illustrate  how  strangely  the  imagination  is  acted  upon  by 
surprise  and  terror,  when  novel  or  unexpected  results  suddenly 
come  upon  it. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  57 

From  the  original  accounts,  as  Dr.  Priestley  observes,  could  we  not 
have  repeated  the  experiment,  we  should  have  formed  a  very  differ, 
ent  idea  of  the  electric  shock  to  what  it  really  is,  even  when  given 
in  greater  strength  than  it  could  have  been  by  those  early  experi- 
menters. It  was  this  experiment,  however,  that  first  made  electri- 
city a  subject  of  general  curiosity.  Every  body  was  eager,  not- 
withstanding the  alarming  reports  that  were  spread  of  it,  to  feel  the 
new  sensation  ;  and  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  experiment  was 
first  made  at  Leyden,  numbers  of  persons,  in  almost  every  country 
in  Europe,  obtained  a  livelihood  by  going  about  and  showing  it. 

The  particulars,,  then,  that  we  have  enumerated  may  be  said  to 
have  constituted  the  whole  of  the  science  of  Electricity,  in  the  shape 
in  which  it  first  presented  itself  to  the  notice  of  Dr.  Franklin.  In 
the  way  in  which  we  have  stated  them,  they  are  little  more,  the 
reader  will  observe,  than  a  mass  of  seemingly  unconnected  facts, 
having,  at  first  sight,  no  semblance  whatever  of  being  the  results 
of  a  common  principle,  or  of  being  reducible  to  any  general  and 
comprehensive  system.  It  is  true  that  a  theory,  that  of  M.  Dufay, 
had  been  formed  before  this  time  to  account  for  many  of  them,  and 
also  for  others  that  we  have  not  mentioned ;  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  Franklin  ever  heard  of  it  until  he  had  formed  his  own,  which 
is,  at  all  events,  entirely  different ;  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  for  us 
to  take  it  at  all  into  account.  We  shall  form  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
amount  and  merits  of  Franklin's  discoveries,  by  considering  the 
facts  we  have  mentioned,  as  really  constituting  the  science  in  the 
state  in  which  he  found  it. 

It  was  in  the  year  1746,  as  he  tells  us  himself  in  the  narrative  of 
his  life,  that,  being  at  Boston,  he  met  with  a  Dr.  Spence,  who  had 
lately  arrived  from  Scotland,  and  who  showed  him  some  electrical 
experiments.  They  were  imperfectly  performed,  as  the  doctor 
was  not  very  expert ;  "  but  being,"  says  Franklin,  "  on  a  subject 
quite  new  to  me,  they  equally  surprised  and  pleased  me.  Soon 
after  my  return  to  Philadelphia,  our  Library  Company  received 
from  Mr.  Peter  Collinson,  F.  R.  S.,  of  London,  a  present  of  a  glass 
tube,  with  some  account  of  the  use  of  it  in  making  such  experi- 
ments. I  eagerly  seized  the  opportunity  of  repeating  what  I  had 
seen  at  Boston  ;  and,  by  much  practice,  acquired  great  readiness  in 
performing  those  also  which  we  had  an  account  of  from  England, 
adding  a  number  of  new  ones.  I  say  much  practice,  for  my  house 
was  continually  full  for  some  time,  with  persons  who  came  to  see 
these  new  wonders.  To  divide  a  little  this  encumbrance  among  my 
friends,  I  caused  a  number  of  similar  tubes  to  be  blown  in  our  glass 
house,  with  which  they  furnished  themselves,  so  that  we  had  at 
length  several  performers."  The  newly  discovered  and  extraor- 


5g  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

dinary  phenomena  exhibited  by  the  Leyden  phial  of  course  very 
early  engaged  his  attention  in  pursuing  these  interesting  experi- 
ments ;  and  his  inquisitive  mind  immediately  set  itself  to  work  to 
find  out  the  reason  of  such  strange  effects,  which  still  astonished 
and  perplexed  the  ablest  philosophers  of  Europe.  Out  of  his  spec- 
ulations  arose  the  ingenious  and  beautiful  theoiy  of  the  action 
of  the  electric  influence  which  is  known  by  his  name  :  and  which 
has  ever  since  been  received  by  the  greater  number  of  philosophers 
as  the  best,  because  the  simplest  and  most  complete,  demonstration 
of  the  phenomena  that  has  yet  been  given  to  the  world. 

Dr.  Franklin's  earliest  inquiries  were  directed  to  ascertain  the 
source  of  the  electricity  which  friction  had  the  effect  of  at  least 
rendering  manifest  in  the  glass  cylinder,  or  other  electric.  The 
question  was,  whether  this  virtue  was  created  by  the  friction  in  the 
electric,  or  only  thereby  communicated  to  it  from  other  bodies. 
In  order  to  determine  this  point,  he  resorted  to  the  very  simple 
experiment  of  endeavoring  to  electrify  himself;  that  is  to  say, 
having  insulated  himself,  and  excited  the  cylinder  by  rubbing  it 
with  his  hand,  he  then  drew  off  its  electricity  from  it  in  the  usual 
manner  into  his  own  body.  But  he  found  that  he  was  not  thereby 
electrified  at  all,  as  he  would  have  been  by  doing  the  same  thing, 
had  the  friction  been  applied  by  another  person.  No  spark  could 
be  obtained  from  him,  after  the  operation,  by  the  presentment  of  a 
conductor ;  nor  did  he  exhibit  on  such  bodies  as  were  brought 
near  him  any  of  the  other  usual  evidences  of  being  charged  with 
electricity. 

If  the  electricity  had  been  created  in  the  electric  by  the  friction, 
it  was  impossible  to  conceive  why  the  person  who  drew  it  off 
should  not  have  been  electrified  in  this  case,  just  as  he  would  have 
been  had  another  person  acted  as  the  rubber.  The  result  evidently 
indicated  that  the  friction  had  effected  a  change  upon  the  person 
who  had  performed  that  operation,  as  well  as  upon  the  cylinder, 
since  it  had  rendered  him  incapable  of  being  electrified  by  a  pro- 
cess  by  which,  in  other  circumstances,  he  would  have  been  so.  It 
was  plain,  in  short,  that  the  electricity  had  passed,  in  the  first  in. 
stance,  out  of  his  body  into  the  cylinder ;  which,  therefore,  in  com- 
municating it  to  him  in  the  second  instance,  only  gave  him  back 
what  it  had  received,  and,  instead  of  electrifying  him,  merely  re- 
stored him  to  his  usual  state — to  that  in  which  he  had  been  before 
the  experiment  was  begun. 

This  accordingly  was  the  conclusion  to  which  Franklin  came ; 
but,  to  confirm  it,  he  next  insulated  two  individuals,  one  of  whom 
he  made  to  rub  the  cylinder,  while  the  other  drew  the  electricity 
from  it.  In  this  case,  it  was  not  the  latter  merely  that  was 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN.  59 

affected  ;  both  were  electrified.  The  one  had  given  out  as  much 
electricity  to  the  cylinder  in  rubbing  it,  as  the  other  had  drawn 
from  it.  To  prove  this  still  farther,  he  made  them  touch  one 
another,  when  both  were  instantly  restored  to  their  usual  state, 
the  redundant  electricity  thrown  off  by  the  one  exactly  making  up 
the  deficiency  of  the  other.  The  spark  produced  by  their  contact 
was  also,  as  was  to  have  been  expected,  greater  than  that  which 
took  place  when  either  of  them  was  touched  by  any  third  person 
who  had  not  been  electrified. 

Proceeding  upon  the  inferences  which  these  results  seemed  so 
evidently  to  indicate,  Franklin  constructed  the  general  outlines  of 
his  theory.  Every  body  in  nature  he  considered  to  have  its  natural 
quantity  of  electricity,  which  may,  however,  be  either  diminished, 
by  part  of  it  being  given  out  to  another  body,  as  that  of  the  rubber, 
in  the  operation  of  the  electrical  machine,  is  given  out  to  the 
cylinder ;  or  increased,  as  when  the  body  is  made  to  receive  the 
electricity  from  the  cylinder.  In  the  one  case  he  regarded  the 
body  as  negatively,  in  the  other  as  positively,  electrified.  In  the 
one  case  it  had  less,  in  the  other  more>  than  its  natural  quantity 
of  electricity :  in  either,  therefore,,  supposing  it  to  be  composed  of 
electricity  and  common  matter,  the  usual  equilibrium  or  balance 
between  its  two  constituent  ingredients  was,  for  the  time*  upset  or 
destroyed. 

But  how  should  this,  produce  the  different  effects  which  are  ob- 
served to  result  from  the  action  of  electrified  bodies  ?  How  is  the 
mere  circumstance  of  the  overthrow  of  the  customary  equilibrium 
between  the  electricity  and  the  matter  of  a  body  to  be  made  to 
account  far  its  attraction  and  repulsion  of  other  bodies,  and  for  the 
extraordinary  phenomena  presented  by  the  Leyden  phial  ?  The 
Franklinian  theory  answers  these  questions  with  great  ease  and 
completeness. 

The  fundamental  law  of  the  electric  fluid,  according  to  this 
theory,  is,  that  its  particles  attract  matter,,  and  repel  one  another. 
To  this  we  must  add  a  similar  law  with  regard  ta  the  particles  of 
matter,  namely,  that  they  repel  each  other,  as  well  as  attract  elec- 
tricity. This  latter  consideration  was  somewhat  unaccountably 
overlooked  by  Franklin  ;  but  was  afterwards  introduced  by  Mr. 
jEpinus,  of  Petersburg,  and  the  late  celebrated  Mr.  Cavendish,  in 
their  more  elaborate  expositions  of  his  theory  of  the  electrical 
action.  Let  us  now  apply  these  two  simple  principles  to  the  ex- 
planation of  the  facts  we  have  already  mentioned. 

In  the  first  place,  when  two  bodies  are  in  their  ordinary  or 
natural  state,  the  quantity  of  matter  is-  an  exact  balance  for  the 
quantity  of  electricity  in  each,  and  there  is  accordingly  no  tendency 

5* 


00  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

of  the  fluid  to  escape  ;  no  spark  will  take  place  between  two  such 
bodies  when  they  are  brought  into  contact.  Nor  will  they  either 
attract  or  repel  each  other,  because  the  attractive  and  repulsive 
forces  operating  between  them  are  exactly  balanced,  the  two  at. 
tractions  of  the  electricity  in  the  first  for  the  matter  in  the  second, 
and  of  the  electricity  in  the  second  for  the  matter  in  the  first,  being 
opposed  by  the  two  repulsions  of  the  electricity  in  the  first  for  the 
electricity  in  the  second,  and  of  the  matter  in  the  first  for  the  mat- 
ter  in  the  second.  They,  therefore,  produce  no  effect  upon  each 
other  whatever. 

But  let  us  next  suppose  that  one  of  the  bodies  is  an  electric 
which  has  been  excited  in  the  usual  way  by  friction,  a  stick  of 
wax,  or  a  glass  cylinder,  for  example,  which  has  been  rubbed  with 
the  hand,  or  a  piece  of  dry  silk.  In  this  case,  the  body  in  question 
has  received  an  addition  to  its  natural  quantity  of  electricity,  which 
addition,  accordingly,  it  will  most  readily  part  with  whenever  it  is 
brought  into  contact  with  a  conductor.  But  this  is  not  all.  Let 
us  see  how  it  will  act,  according  to  the  law  that  has  been  stated, 
upon  the  other  body,  which  we  shall  suppose  to  be  in  its  natural 
state,  when  they  are  brought  near  each  other.  First,  from  the 
repulsive  tendency  of  the  electric  particles,  the  extra  electricity  in 
the  excited  body  will  drive  away  a  portion  of  the  electricity  of  the 
other  from  its  nearest  end,  which  will  thus  become  negatively  elec- 
trified, or  will  consist  of  more  matter  than  is  necessary  to  balance 
its  electricity.  In  this  state  of  things,  what  are  the  attractive  and 
repulsive  forces  operating  between  the  two  bodies,  the  one,  be  it 
remembered,  having  an  excess  of  electricity,  and  the  other  an 
excess  of  matter  1  There  are,  in  fact,  five  attractive  forces  opposed 
by  only  four  repulsive ;  the  former  being  those  of  the  matter  in  the 
first  body  for  the  electricity  in  the  second,  of  the  balanced  electri- 
city  in  the  first  for  the  balanced  matter  in  the  second,  of  the  same 
for  the  extra  matter  in  the  second,  together  with  the  two  of  the 
extra  electricity  in  the  first  for  the  same  two  quantities  of  matter ; 
and  the  latter  being  those  of  the  matter  in  the  first  for  the  balanced 
matter  in  the  second,  of  the  same  for  the  extra  matter  in  the 
second,  together  with  those  of  the  electricity  in  the  second  both 
for  the  balanced  and  the  extra  electricity  in  the  first.  The  two 
bodies,  therefore,  ought  to  meet,  as  we  find  they  actually  do.  But 
rip  sooner  do  they  meet  than  the  extra  electricity  of  the  first,  at- 
tracted by  the  matter  of  the  second,  flows  over  partly  to  it ;  and 
both  bodies  become  positively  electrified  ;  that  is  to  say,  each 
contains  a  quantity  of  electricity  beyond  that  which  its  matter  is 
capable  of  balancing.  It  will  be  found,  upon  examination,  that 
we  have  now  four  powers  of  attraction  opposed  by  five  of  repul- 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  61 

sion  ;  the  former  being  those  of  the  matter  in  each  body  for  the 
two  electricities  in  the  other,  the  latter  those  exerted  by  each  of 
the  electricities  in  the  one  against  both  the  electricities  of  the 
other,  together  with  that  of  the  matter  in  the  one  for  the  matter 
in  the  other.  The  bodies  now  accordingly  should  repel  each 
other,  just  as  we  find  to  be  the  fact.  Of  course  the  same  reason, 
ing  applies  to  the  case  of  a  neutral  body,  and  any  other  containing 
a  superabundance  of  electricity,  whether  it  be  an  electric  or  no, 
and  in  whatever  way  its  electricity  may  have  been  communicated 
to  it.  We  may  add  that  there  is  no  case  of  attraction  or  repulsion 
between  two  bodies,  in  which  the  results  indicated  by  the  theory 
do  not  coincide  with  those  of  observation  as  exactly  as  in  this. 

We  now  come  to  the  phenomena  of  the  Leyden  phial.  The 
two  bodies  upon  which  we  are  here  to  fix  our  attention  are  the  in. 
terior  and  exterior  coatings,  which,  before  the  process  of  charging 
has  commenced,  are  of  course  in  their  natural  state,  each  having 
exactly  that  quantity  of  electricity  which  its  matter  is  able  to 
balance,  and  neither  therefore  exerting  any  effect  whatever  upon 
the  other.  But  no  sooner  has  the  interior  coating  received  an 
additional  portion  of  electricity  from  the  prime  conductor,  with 
which  the  reader  will  remember  it  is  in  communication,  than, 
being  now  positively  electrified,  it  repels  a  corresponding  portion 
of  its  electricity  from  the  exterior  coating,  which  therefore  be- 
comes  negatively  electrified.  As  the  operation  goes  on,  both  these 
effects  increase,  till  at  last  the  superabundance  of  electricity  in  the 
one  surface,  and  its  deficiency  in  the  other,  reach  the  limit  to 
which  it  is  wished  to  carry  them.  All  this  while,  it  will  be  re- 
marked, the  former  is  prevented  from  giving  out  its  superfluity  to 
the  latter  by  the  interposition  of  the  glass,  which  is  a  non-con- 
ductor, and  the  uncovered  space  which  had  been  left  on  both  sides 
around  the  lip  of  the  vessel.  If  the  charge  were  made  too  high, 
however,  even  these  obstacles  would  be  overcome,  and  the  un- 
balanced electricity  of  the  interior  coating,  finding  no  easier  vent, 
would  at  last  rush  through  the  glass  to  the  unsaturated  matter  on 
its  opposite  surface,  probably  shattering  it  to  pieces  in  its  progress. 
But,  to  effect  a  discharge  in  the  usual  manner,  a  communication 
must  be  established  by  means  of  a  good  conductor  between  the 
two  surfaces,  before  this  extreme  limit  be  reached.  If  either  a 
rod  of  metal,  for  example,  or  the  human  body,  be  employed  for 
this  purpose,  the  fluid  from  the  interior  coating  will  instantly  rush 
along  the  road  made  for  it,  occasioning  a  pretty  loud  report,  and, 
in  the  latter  case,  a  severe  shock,  by  the  rapidity  of  its  passage. 
Both  coatings  will,  in  consequence,  be  immediately  restored  to 
their  natural  state. 


62  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

That  this  is  the  true  explanation  of  the  matter  Franklin  further 
demonstrated  by  a  variety  of  ingenious  experiments.  In  the  first 
place,  he  found  that,  if  the  outer  coating  was  cut  off,  by  being  in- 
sulated  from  every  conducting  body,  the  inner  coating  could  not 
be  charged  ;  the  electricity  in  the  outer  coating  had  here  no  means 
of  escape,  and  it  was  consequently  impossible  to  produce  in  that 
coating  the  requisite  negative  electricity.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a 
good  conductor  was  brought  within  the  striking  distance  from  the 
outside  coating,  while  the  process  of  charging  was  going  on,  the 
expelled  fluid  might  be  seen  passing  away  towards  it  in  sparks,  in 
proportion  as  more  was  sent  from  the  prime  conductor  into  the 
inside  of  the  vessel.  He  observed  also  that,  when  a  phial  was 
charged,  a  cork  ball,  suspended  on  silk,  would  be  attracted  by  the 
one  coating  when  it  had  been  repelled  by  the  other— an  additional 
indication  and  proof  of  their  opposite  states  of  electricity,  as  might 
be  easily  shown  by  an  analysis  of  the  attractive  and  repulsive  forces 
operating  between  the  two  bodies  in  each  case. 

But  Franklin  did  not  rest  contented  with  ascertaining  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  Leyden  phial.  He  made  also  a  very  happy  applica- 
tion of  this  principle,  which  afforded  a  still  more  wonderful  mani- 
festation than  had  yet  been  obtained  of  the  powers  of  accumulated 
electricity.  Considering  the  waste  that  took  place,  in  the  common 
experiment,  of  the  fluid  expelled,  during  the  process  of  charging, 
from  the  exterior  coating,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  employing  it  to 
charge  the  inner  surface  of  a  second  jar,  which  he  effected,  of 
course,  by  the  simple  expedient  of  drawing  it  off  by  means  of  a 
metal  rod  communicating  with  that  surface.  The  electricity  ex- 
pelled from  the  outside  of  this  second  jar  was  conveyed,  in  like 
manner,  into  the  inside  of  a  third ;  and,  in  this  way,  a  great  num- 
ber of  jars  were  charged  with  the  same  facility  as  a  single  one. 
Then,  having  connected  all  the  inside  coatings  with  one  conductor, 
and  all  the  outside  coatings  with  another,  he  had  merely  to  bring 
these  two  general  conductors  into  contact  or  communication,  in 
order  to  discharge  the  whole  accumulation  at  once*  This  con- 
trivance he  called  an  electrical  battery. 

The  general  sketch  we  have  just  given  will  put  the  reader  ia 
possession,  at  least,  of  the  great  outlines  of  the  Franklinian  theory 
of  electricity,  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  beautiful  generalizations 
to  be  found  in  the  whole  compass  of  science.  By  the  aid  of  what 
we  may  call  a  single  principle,  since  the  law  with  regard  to  the 
electric  fluid  and  common  matter  is  exactly  the  same,  it  explains 
satisfactorily  not  only  all  the  facts  connected  with  this  interesting 
subject  which  were  known  when  it  was  first  proposed,  but  all  those 
that  have  been  since  discovered,  diffusing  order  and  light  through- 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN.  63 

out  what  seemed  before  little  better  than  a  chaos  of  unintelligible 
contradictions.  We  must  now,  however,  turn  to  a  very  brilliant 
discovery  of  this  illustrious  philosopher,  the  reality  of  which  does 
not  depend  upon  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  any  theory. 

Franklin  was  by  no  means  the  first  person  to  whom  the  idea 
had  suggested  itself  of  a  similarity  between  electricity  and  light- 
ning. Not  to  mention  many  other  names  which  might  be  quoted, 
the  Abbe  Nollet  had,  before  him,  not  only  intimated  his  suspicion 
that  thunder  might  be  in  the  hands  of  Nature  what  electricity  is 
in  ours,  but  stated  a  variety  of  reasons  on  which  he  rested  his 
conjecture.  It  is  to  Franklin  alone,  however,  that  the  glory  be- 
longs of  both  pointing  out  the  true  method  of  verifying  this  con- 
jecture, and  of  actually  establishing  the  perfect  identity  of  the  two 
powers  in  question.  "  It  has,  indeed,  been  of  late  the  fashion," 
says  the  editor  of  the  first  account  of  his  electrical  experiments, 
published  at  London  in  1751,  "  to  ascribe  every  grand  or  unusual 
operation  of  nature,  such  as  lightning  and  earthquakes,  to  electri- 
city; not,  as  one  would  imagine  from  the  matter  of  reasoning  on 
these  occasions,  that  the  authors  of  these  schemes  have  discovered 
any  connection  betwixt  the  cause  and  effect,  or  saw  in  what  man- 
ner they  were  related ;  but,  as  it  would  seem,  merely  because  they 
were  unacquainted  with  any  other  agent,  of  which  it  could  not 
positively  be  said  the  connection  was  impossible."  Franklin  trans- 
formed what  had  been  little  more  than  a  figure  of  rhetoric  into  a 
most  important  scientific  fact. 

In  a  paper,  dated  November  7,  1749,  he  enumerates  all  the 
known  points  of  resemblance  between  lightning  and  electricity. 
In  the  first  place,  he  remarks,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  effects  of 
the  one  should  be  so  much  greater  than  those  of  the  other ;  for  if 
two  gun-barrels  electrified  will  strike  at  two  inches  distance,  and 
make  a  loud  report,  at  how  great  a  distance  will  ten  thousand  acres 
of  electrified  cloud  strike,  and  give  its  fire  ;  and  how  loud  must  be 
that  crack  !  He  then  notices  the  crooked  and  waving  course,  both 
of  the  flash  of  lightning,  and,  in  some  cases,  of  the  electric  sparks ; 
the  tendency  of  lightning,  like  electricity,  to  take  the  readiest  and 
best  conductor ;  the  facts  that  lightning,  as  well  as  electricity,  dis- 
solves metals,  burns  some  bodies,  rends  others,  strikes  people  blind, 
destroys  animal  life,  reverses  the  poles  of  magnets,  &c. 

He  had  known  for  some  time  the  extraordinary  power  of  pointed 
bodies,  both  in  drawing  and  in  throwing  off  the  electric  fire.  The 
true  explanation  of  this  fact  did  not  occur  to  him ;  but  it  is  a 
direct  consequence  of  the  fundamental  principle  of  his  own  theory, 
according  to  which  the  repulsive  tendency  of  the  particles  of  elec- 
tricity towards  each  other,  occasioning  the  fluid  to  retire,  in  every 


64  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

case,  from  the  interior  to  the  surface  of  bodies,  drives  it  with 
especial  force  towards  points  and  other  prominences,  and  thus 
favors  its  escape  through  such  outlets  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  more  concentrated  attraction  which  the  matter  of  a  pointed 
body,  as  compared  with  that  of  a  blunt  one,  exerts  upon  the  elec- 
tricity to  which  it  is  presented,  brings  it  down  into  its  new  channel 
in  a  denser  stream.  In  possession,  however,  of  the  fact,  we  find 
him  concluding  the  paper  we  have  mentioned  as  follows  : — "The 
electric  fluid  is  attracted  by  points.  We  do  not  know  whether 
this  property  be  in  lightning  ;  but  since  they  agree  in  all  the  par- 
ticulars  in  which  we  can  already  compare  them,  it  is  not  improb- 
able that  they  agree  likewise  in  this.  Let  the  experiment  be 
made." 

Full  of  this  idea,  it  was  yet  some  time  before  he  found  what  he 
conceived  a  favorable  opportunity  of  trying  its  truth  in  the  way  he 
meditated.  A  spire  was  about  to  be  erected  in  Philadelphia,  which 
he  thought  would  afford  him  facilities  for  the  experiment ;  but  his 
attention  having  been  one  day  drawn  by  a  kite  which  a  boy  was 
flying,  it  suddenly  occurred  to  him,  that  here  was  a  method  of 
reaching  the  clouds  preferable  to  any  other.  Accordingly,  he 
immediately  took  a  large  silk  handkerchief,  and  stretching  it  over 
two  cross  sticks,  formed  in  this  manner  his  xsimple  apparatus  for 
drawing  down  the  lightning  from  its  cloud.  Soon  after,  seeing 
a  thunder-storm  approaching,  he  took  a  walk  into  a  field  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  in  which  there  was  a  shed,  communi- 
cating his  intentions,  however,  to  no  one  but  his  son,  whom  he 
took  with  him,  to  assist  him  in  raising  the  kite :  this  was  in  June, 
1752. 

The  kite  being  raised,  he  fastened  a  key  to  the  lower  extremity 
of  the  hempen  string,  and  then  insulating  it  by  attaching  it  to  a 
post  by  means  of  silk,  he  placed  himself  under  the  shed,  and  wait- 
ed the  result.  For  some  time  no  signs  of  electricity  appeared.  A 
cloud,  apparently  charged  with  lightning,  had  even  passed  over 
them  without  producing  any  effect.  At  length,  however^ just  as 
Franklin  was  beginning  to  despair,  he  observed  some  loose  threads 
of  the  hempen  string  rise  and  stand  erect,  exactly  as  if  they  had 
been  repelled  from  each  other  by  being  charged  with  electricity. 
He  immediately  presented  his  knuckle  to  the  key,  and,  to  his  in- 
expressible delight,  drew  from  it  the  well-known  electrical  spark. 
It  is  said  that  his  emotion  was  so  great  at  this  completion  of  a 
discovery  which  was  to  make  his  name  immortal,  that  he  heaved 
a  deep  sigh,  and  felt  that  he  could  that  moment  have  willingly  died. 
As  the  rain  increased,  the  cord  became  a  better  conductor,  and 
the  key  gave  out  its  electricity  copiously.  Had  the  hemp  been 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN.  65 

thoroughly  wet,  the  bold  experimenter  might,  as  he  was  contented 
to  do,  have  paid  for  his  discovery  with  his  life. 

He  afterwards  brought  down  the  lightning  into  his  house,  by 
means  of  an  insulated  iron  rod,  and  performed  with  it,  at  his 
leisure,  all  the  experiments  that  could  be  performed  with  elec- 
tricity. But  he  did  not  stop  here.  His  active  and  practical  mind 
was  not  satisfied  even  with  the  splendid  discovery,  until  he  had 
turned  it  to  a  useful  end.  There  was  always  a  strong  tendency 
in  Franklin's  philosophy  to  these  practical  applications.  The 
lightning-rod  was  probably  the  result  of  some  of  the  amusing  ex- 
periments with  which  Franklin  was,-  at  the  commencement  of  his 
electrical  investigations,  accustomed  to  employ  his  own  leisure, 
and  afford  pleasure  to  his  friends.  In  one  of  his  letters  to  Mr.  Col- 
linson,  dated  so  early  as  1748,  we  find  him  expressing  himself  in 
the  following  strain,  in  reference  to  his  electrical  experiments  : — 
"  Chagrined  a  little  that  we  have  hitherto  been  able  to  produce 
nothing  in  this  way  of  use  to  mankind,  and  the  hot  weather  coming 
on,  when  electrical  experiments  are  not  so  agreeable,  it  is  proposed 
to  put  an  end  to  them  for  this  season  somewhat  humorously,  in  a 
party  of  pleasure  on  the  banks  of  the  Schuylkill.  Spirits  at  the  same 
time  are  to  be  fired  by  a  spark  sent  from  side  to  side  through  the 
river,  without  any  other  conductor  than  the  water — an  experiment 
which  we  have  some  time  since  performed  to  the  amazement  of 
many.  A  turkey  is  to  be  killed  for  dinner  by  the  electrical  shock, 
and  roasted  by  the  electrical  jack,  before  a  fire  kindled  by  the 
electrical  bottle ;  when  the  healths  of  all  the  famous  electricians  in 
England,  Holland,  France,  and  Germany,  are  to  be  drunk  in  elec- 
trified bumpers,  under  the  discharge  of  guns  from  the  electrical 
battery." 

Franklin's  electrical  discoveries  did  not,  on  their  first  announce- 
ment, attract  much  attention  in  England ;  and,  indeed,  he  had  the 
mortification  of  learning  that  his  paper  on  the  similarity  of  light- 
ning to  electricity,  when  read  by  a  friend  to  the  Royal  Society,  had 
been  only  laughed  at  by  that  learned  body.  In  France,  however, 
the  account  that  had  been  published  in  London  of  his  experiments, 
fortunately  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  celebrated  naturalist,  Buffbn, 
who  was  so  much  struck  with  it,  that  he  had  it  translated  into 
French,  and  printed  at  Paris.  This  made  it  immediately  known 
to  all  Europe  ;  and  versions  of  it  in  various  other  modern  languages 
soon  appeared,  as  well  as  one  in  Latin.  The  theory  propounded 
in  it  was  at  first  violently  opposed  in  France  by  the  Abbe  Nollet, 
who  had  one  of  his  own  to  support,  and,  as  Franklin  tells  us, 
could  not  at  first  believe  that  such  a  work  came  from  America ;  but 
said  it  must  have  been  fabricated  by  his  enemies  at  Paris.  The  Abbe 


66  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

was  eventually,  however,  deserted  by  all  his  partisans,  and  lived  to 
see  himself  the  last  of  his  sect.  In  England,  too,  the  Franklinian 
experiments  gradually  began  to  be  more  spoken  of;  and,  at  last, 
even  the  Royal  Society  was  induced  to  resume  the  consideration 
of  the  papers  that  had  formerly  been  read  to  them.  One  of  their 
members  verified  the  grand  experiment  of  bringing  down  lightning 
from  the  clouds ;  and  upon  his  reading  to  them  an  account  of  his  suc- 
cess, "  they  soon,"  says  Franklin,  "  made  me  more  than  amends  for 
the  slight  with  which  they  had  before  treated  me.  Without  my  having 
made  any  application  for  that  honor,  they  chose  me  a  member; 
and  voted  that  I  should  be  excused  the  customary  payments,  which 
would  have  amounted  to  twenty-five  guineas  ;  and  ever  since  have 
given  me  their  transactions  gratis.  They  also  presented  me  with 
the  gold  medal  of  Sir  Godfrey  Copley,  for  the  year  1753,  the  de- 
livery of  which  was  accompanied  with  a  very  handsome  speech  of 
the  president,  Lord  Macclesfield,  wherein  I  was  highly  honored." 
Some  years  afterwards,  when  he  was  in  Great  Britain  with  his 
son,  the  University  of  St.  Andrew's  conferred  upon  him  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Laws ;  and  its  example  was  followed  by  the  Univer- 
sities of  Edinburgh  and  Oxford.  He  was  also  elected  a  member 
of  many  of  the  learned  societies  throughout  Europe. 

No  philosopher  of  the  age  now  stood  on  a  prouder  eminence 
than  this  extraordinary  man,  who  had  originally  been  one  of  the 
most  obscure  of  the  people,  and  had  raised  himself  to  all  this 
distinction  almost  without  the  aid  of  any  education  but  such  as  he 
had  given  himself.  Who  will  say,  after  reading  his  story,  that  any 
thing  more  is  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  knowledge  than  the 
determination  to  attain  it  ? — that  there  is  any  other  obstacle  to  even 
the  highest  degree  of  intellectual  advancement  which  may  not  be 
overcome,  except  a  man's  own  listlessness  or  indolence  ?  The 
secret  of  this  man's  success  in  the  cultivation  of  his  mental  powers 
was,  that  he  was  ever  awake  and  active  in  that  business ;  that  he 
suffered  no  opportunity  of  forwarding  it  to  escape  him  unimproved  ; 
that,  however  poor,  he  found  at  least  a  few  pence,  were  it  even  by 
diminishing  his  scanty  meals,  to  pay  for  the  loan  of  the  books  he 
could  not  buy ;  that,  however  hard- wrought,  he  found  a  few  hours 
in  the  week,  were  it  by  sitting  up  half  the  night  after  toiling  all  the 
day,  to  read  and  study  them.  Others  may  not  have  his  original 
powers  of  mind ;  but  his  industry,  his  perseverance,  his  self-com- 
mand, are  for  the  imitation  of  all :  and  though  few  may  look  for- 
ward  to  the  rare  fortune  of  achieving  discoveries  like  his,  all  may 
derive  both  instruction  and  encouragement  from  his  example. 
They  who  may  never  overtake  the  light,  may  at  least  follow  its  path, 
and  guide  their  footsteps  by  its  illumination. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  67 

Were  we  to  pursue  the  remainder  of  Franklin's  history,  we 
should  find  the  fame  of  the  patriot  vying  with  that  of  the  philoso- 
pher, in  casting  a  splendor  over  it ;  and  the  originally  poor  and 
unknown  tradesman  standing  before  kings,  associating  as  an  equal 
with  the  most  eminent  statesmen  of  his  time,  and  arranging  along 
with  them  the  wars  and  treaties  of  mighty  nations.  When  the 
struggle  for  independence  commenced,  Franklin  took  a  very  active 
part.  He  was  soon  sent  ambassador  to  the  court  of  France,  where 
principally  through  his  exertions  an  alliance  was  brought  about 
between  the  two  countries,  which  produced  an  immediate  war  be. 
tween  the  latter  and  England.  In  1783,  he  signed  the  treaty  of 
peace,  which  recognised  our  independence.  Two  years  after  he 
arrived  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Supreme  Executive  Council  of  the  city.  He  closed  his  eventful 
and  honorable  life  on  the  17th  of  April,  1790,  in  the  eighty-fifth 
year  of  his  age. 

Franklin  was  in  conversation  sprightly,  in  manners  bland.  Des- 
titute of  pride,  he  considered  all  honest  men  on  an  equality.  Dur- 
ing the  time  he  was  in  Great  Britain,  in  the  dignified  station  of 
ambassador,  he  went  into  his  old  printing  office,  and  entering  the 
press-room,  proceeded  to  a  particular  press  where  two  men  were 
at  work  :  "  Come,  my  fnends"  says  he,  "  we  will  drink  together  ; 
it  is  now  forty  years  since  I  worked  like  you  at  this  press,  as  a  jour- 
neyman printer."  A  gallon  of  porter  was  sent  for,  and  he  then 
drank  "success  to  printing."  At  a  later  period,  the  merchants  in 
Philadelphia  being  desirous  to  establish  an  assembly  for  dancing, 
they  drew  up  some  rules,  among  which  was  one  "  that  no  mechanic 
or  mechanic's  wife  or  daughter  should  be  admitted  on  any  terms." 
This  rule  being  submitted  to  Franklin,  he  remarked  that  "  it  ex* 
eluded  God  Almighty,  for  he  was  the  greatest  mechanic  in  the  uni- 
verse." An  enemy  to  every  thing  aristocratic,  even  his  eloquence 
partook  of  an  unpretending  character ;  but  he  developed  his  ideas 
with  clearness  and  precision.  He  had  always  at  hand  an  immense 
stock  of  common  sense,  and  possessed  the  very  useful  quality  of 
being  "  eminently  great  in  little  things." 

6 


OLIVER  EVANS. 


Birth. — Apprenticed  to  a  wagon  maker. — Fondness  for  study. — Penuriousness  of 
his  master. — Pursues  his  evening  studies  by  the  light  of  burning  shavings. — 
Turns  his  attention  to  the  propelling  of  carriages  without  animal  power. — An 
experiment. — Renews  his  studies  with  increased  ardor. — Is  laughed  at  for  de- 
claring that  he  can  make  steam  carriages. — Opinions  confirmed  by  experiment. 
— Is  defrauded  of  an  invention  for  making  card  teeth. — Marries. — Enters  into 
the  milling  business  with  his  brothers. — His  inventions  revolutionize  the  man- 
ufacture of  flour. — Account  of  those  improvements. — Difficulties  attending 
their  introduction. — Opposition  of  the  Brandywine  millers. — Petitions  the  Le- 
gislature of  Pennsylvania  for  the  right  of  using  his  mill  improvements  and 
steam  carriages. — The  former  granted  and  the  latter  ridiculed. — The  Legislature 
of  Maryland  grant  them  both. — Commences  a  steam  carriage  at  his  own  ex- 
pense.— Latrobe's  report. — Lays  aside  the  carriage  and  builds  a  steam  engine  for 
mills,  which  reduces  him  to  poverty. — Final  success. — Constructs  a  machine 
for  cleaning  docks. — First  American  locomotive. — Public  incredulity. — His  the 
first  high  pressure  engine. — Submits  a  proposition  to  the  Lancaster  turnpike 
company. — Predictions. — Mill  improvements  gradually  come  into  use. — Viola- 
tors.— Unsuccessful  lawsuit. — Petitions  congress  for  a  renewal  of  his  patents. 
— Memorial  of  his  opponents. — Counter  memorial. — Triumph. — His  published 
works. — Death. 

IT  is  but  seldom  that  the  pen  of  the  biographer  has  occasion  to 
trace  the  memoir  of  an  individual  possessing  equal  perseverance, 
or  greater  originality  of  mechanical  conception,  than  the  subject  of 
this  memoir,  who  has  been  aptly  styled  "  the  Watt  of  America." 

Oliver  Evans  was  born  in  Newport,  Delaware,  sometime  in  the 
year  1755  or  1756.  Little  is  preserved  respecting  his  early  his- 
tory. His  parents  were  agriculturists  of  respectable  standing,  who 
gave  their  son  the  advantages  common  to  people  in  their  station. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  Evans  was  apprenticed  to  a  wheelwright 
or  wagon  maker.  An  anecdote  is  preserved  which  displays 
in  his  character,  even  at  this  period,  that  ardent  desire  for  know, 
ledge,  and  that  determination  ever  evinced  not  to  let  any  obstacle 
interfere  with  the  object  of  his  pursuits.  His  master,  an  illiterate 
man,  observing  his  apprentice  employing  his  leisure  evenings  in 
study,  through  motives  of  parsimony,  forbade  him  using  candles ; 
but  young  Evans  was  not  to  be  discouraged,  for,  collecting  at  the 
close  of  each  day  the  shavings  made  from  his  work,  he  would  take 
them  to  the  chimney  corner,  and,  by  their  uncertain  light,  pursue 
his  evening  studies. 

While  yet  an  apprentice  his  attention  was  turned  to  the  subject 


OLIVER  EVANS. 


OLIVER  EVANS.  71 

of  propelling  land  carriages  without  animal  power;  but  all  the 
methods  with  which  he  was  acquainted  appearing  too  futile  to  de- 
serve an  experiment,  he  concluded  such  motion  to  be  impossible  for 
the  want  of  a  suitable  original  power.  But  one  of  his  brothers 
informed  him  on  a  Christmas  evening  that  he  had  that  day  been 
in  company  with  a  neighboring  blacksmith's  boy,  who,  for  amuse- 
ment, had  stopped  up  the  touch-hole  of  a  gun  barrel,  then  pouring 
in  a  gill  of  water,  rammed  down  a  tight  wad  ;  after  which  on  put- 
ting the  breech  in  the  fire,  it  discharged  itself  with  a  report  like 
gunpowder.  The  active  mind  of  Evans,  ever  awake  to  the  phe- 
nomena around  him,  instantly  saw  that  here  was  the  long  desired 
power,  if  he  could  only  apply  it,  and  from  this  period  endeavored 
to  discover  the  means.  He  labored  for  some  time  without  success ; 
at  length  a  book  fell  into  his  hands  describing  the  old  atmospheric 
steam  engine ;  and  he  was  greatly  astonished  to  observe  they  had  so 
far  erred  as  to  use  the  steam  only  in  forming  a  vacuum  to  apply  the 
mere  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  instead  of  using  the  elastic  force 
of  the  steam  for  the  original  motion,  the  power  of  which  he  sup- 
posed irresistible.  He  thereupon  renewed  his  studies  with  in- 
creased ardor,  and  soon  declared  that  he  could  make  steam  car- 
riages, and  endeavored  to  communicate  his  ideas  to  others,  but  was 
only  listened  to  with  ridicule.  Persevering,  his  experiments  confirm- 
ed his  opinions ;  but  want  of  means  for  a  time  compelled  him  to 
abandon  its  prosecution. 

When  twenty-three  or  twenty-four  years  of  age  he  was  engaged 
in  making  card  teeth  by  hand,  at  that  period  the  only  method 
known.  Finding  this  a  tedious  operation,  he  invented  a  machine 
that  would  manufacture  three  thousand  a  minute,  but  was  defrauded 
of  a  great  share  of  the  benefits  derived  from  it.  Shortly  after  he 
projected  a  plan  for  pricking  the  leather  in  cards,  and  at  the  same 
time  cutting,  bending,  and  setting  the  teeth ;  but  owing  to  the  un- 
fortunate result  of  the  previous  invention,  never  carried  it  into 
execution. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-five  Mr.  Evans  married  a  daughter  of  Mr. 
John  Tomlinson,  a  respectable  farmer  of  Delaware.  About  this 
period  he  entered  into  business  with  his  brothers,  who  were  mil- 
lers, and  wished  to  avail  themselves  of  his  talents  and  ingenuity. 
Here  was  an  appropriate  field  for  the  display  of  a  genius  like  his, 
and  ere  long  was  commenced  those  series  of  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  machinery  and  appurtenances  of  mills  which  effected 
a  complete  revolution  in  the  manufacture  of  flour.  These  improve- 
ments consist  of  the  invention  and  various  application  of  the  fol- 
lowing machines,  viz  : — The  elevator,  the  conveyor,  the  hopper- 
boy,  the  drill,  and  the  descender,  which  five  machines  are  variously 


72  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

applied  in  different  mills  according  to  their  construction,  so  as  to 
perform  every  necessary  movement  of  the  grain  and  meal  from 
one  part  of  the  mill  to  the  other,  or  from  one  machine  to  another, 
through  all  the  various  operations,  from  the  time  the  grain  is  emp- 
tied from  the  wagoner's  bag,  or  from  the  measure  on  board  the 
ship,  until  it  is  completely  manufactured  into  flour,  separated,  and 
ready  for  packing ;  all  of  which  is  performed  by  the  force  of  the  water, 
without  the  aid  of  manual  labor,  except  to  set  the  different  machines  in 
motion.  The  advantages  derived  from  these  improvements  are  great 
in  almost  every  respect,  not  only  causing  a  saving  of  full  one  half 
in  the  labor  of  attendance,  but  manufacturing  the  flour  better,  and 
making  about  twenty-eight  pounds  of  superfine  flour  more  to  each 
barrel  than  was  made  by  the  old  method.* 

These  improvements  were  completed  in  theory  as  early  as  1783, 
but  were  not  carried  into  operation  until  a  year  or  two  later ;  and 
then  before  they  perfectly  succeeded,  many  alterations  were  to  be 
made,  and  great  difficulties  to  surmount.  Although  the  result  ex- 
ceeded expectation,  yet  the  opposition  which  was  experienced  ren- 
dered their  introduction  into  general  use  extremely  laborious.  To 
promote  this  object,  Mr.  Evans  furnished  his  brother  with  the  ne- 
cessary funds,  and  despatched  him  through  the  country  to  establish 
them.  He  travelled  through  the  states  of  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia,  offering  the  inventions  gratis  to  the  first  in 
each  county  who  would  adopt  them.  After  considerable  expense 
he  returned  wholly  unsuccessful,  and  without  any  favorable  pros- 
pects for  the  future.  The  Brandywine  millers  in  particular  op- 
posed their  adoption  with  all  their  influence,  until  they  were  in  use 
in  several  mills  around  them.  At  length  they  held  a  consultation, 
and  deputed  one  of  their  number  to  Mr.  Evans  to  make  proposals 
as  to  the  terms  on  which  they  would  try  the  experiment,  which 
were  nearly  in  the  words  following,  viz  :  "  Oliver,  we  have  had  a 
meeting,  and  agreed  that  if  thou  would  furnish  all  the  materials,  and 
thy  own  boarding,  and  come  thyself  to  set  up  the  machinery,  in  one 
of  our  mills,  thee  may  come  and  try,  and  if  it  answers  a  valuable 
purpose,  we  will  pay  thy  bill,  but  if  it  does  not  answer,  thee  must 
take  it  all  out  again,  and  leave  the  mill  just  as  thee  finds  it,  at  thy 
own  expense."  The  principles  having  already  been  tested,  and 
these  millers  knowing  Mr.  Evans'  reduced  circumstances  at  the 

*  When  Mr.  Evans'  milling  improvements  came  into  popular  use,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  at  Ellicott's  mills,  near  Baltimore,  where  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  barrels  of  flour  were  daily  manufactured,  that  in  expense  of  attendance  alone, 
there  was  an  annual  saving  of  four  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-five  dollars, 
and  that  the  saving  made  by  the  increased  amount  manufactured,  was  at  least 
fifty  cents  a  barrel,  amounting  to  a  gain  in  this  department  of  thirty-two  thou- 
tandjive  hundred  dollars  f 


OLIVER  EVANS.  73 

time,  he  could  but  regard  their  propositions  as  a  disposition  to  re- 
tard and  embarrass  rather  than  to  encourage  or  forward  the  im- 
provement. 

The  following  anecdotes  which  were  related  by  Mr.  Evans, 
exhibit  a  strength  of  prejudice,  on  the  part  of  these  men,  almost 
inconceivable.  When  he  had  his  inventions  in  full  operation, 
so  that  he  could  alone  attend  his  mill  with  less  fatigue  than  he 
could  before,  even  with  the  assistance  of  two  men  and  a  boy, 
he  invited  the  Brandywine  millers  to  come  and  witness  its  opera- 
tion. It  so  happened  that  some  of  them  called  on  a  day  when  he  had 
alone,  both  to  attend  the  mill  and  make  hay  in  an  adjoining  clover  lot. 
On  seeing  their  approach,  he  turned  from  them,  thinking  it  best  to 
let  them  enter  the  mill,  and  finding  it  attending  to  itself,  would  be 
convincing  and  positive  proof  of  the  great  utility  of  the  improve- 
ments. Entering,  they  found  all  the  operations  of  cleaning,  grind- 
ing, and  bolting  going  on  without  the  intervention  of  a  human  hand, 
with  perfect  regularity  and  despatch.  In  about  half  an  hour,  they 
came  to  Mr.  Evans,  and  requested  him  to  explain  the  whole  of  the 
operations,  which  he  did  willingly,  but  took  care  to  inform  them 
that  it  was  an  "  uncommon  busy"  day  with  him,  for  he  had  both  to 
attend  the  mill  and  make  hay.  After  they  left,  Mr.  Evans  returned 
to  the  lot,  leaving  the  mill  to  attend  itself,  and  rejoicing  at  the  lucky 
circumstance,  not  doubting  but  they  were  now  fully  convinced.  But 
to  his  astonishment,  he  soon  learned  that  on  their  return,  they  had 
reported  to  their  neighboring  millers,  that  the  whole  contrivance 
was  a  set  of  "  rattle  traps,"  not  worthy  the  attention  of  men  of  com- 
mon sense ;  which  fixed  more  firmly  the  opposition  of  the  rest  to 
the  adoption  of  the  improvement.  Some  time  later,  he  exhibited 
a  model  of  his  improved  mill  in  the  streets  of  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware, which  was  to  be  sent  to  England.  Some  of  the  crowd  called 
to  a  Brandywine  miller,  as  he  happened  to  be  passing,  who  was  so 
struck  with  its  simplicity  and  perfection,  together  with  the  obser- 
vations of  those  present,  that  he  contracted  with  the  inventor  to 
construct  one  for  him.  It  was  soon  put  into  operation  in  presence 
of  the  neighboring  millers  ;  and  though  the  elevators  and  conveyors, 
without  the  aid  of  human  hands,  brought  the  meal  from  the  two 
pair  of  stones,  and  the  tail-flour  from  the  bolts  to  the  hopper-boy, 
which  spread  it  over  the  floor,  stirring,  fanning,  and  gathering  it, 
and  attending  the  bolting  hoppers  at  the  same  time,  yet  one  of 
them,  in  contradiction  to  the  evidence  of  his  own  senses,  exclaimed, 
"  It  will  not  do  !— it  cannot  do  ! — it  is  impossible  it  should  do  !" 

The  opposition  of  these  millers  cost  him  thousands  of  dollars  in 
fruitless  attempts  to  establish  his  inventions.  Wherever  his  agents 
went,  the  inquiry  was,  "Have  the  Brandywine  millers  adopted 

6* 


74  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

them  ?"  The  answer  was  of  course,  "  No !"  which  was  generally 
followed  by  this  pertinent  reply  :  "  If  those  who  are  so  much  more 
extensively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  do  not  think  them 
worthy  their  attention,  they  cannot  certainly  demand  ours."  This 
treatment  on  the  part  of  these  men  recoiled  upon  themselves,  and 
their  obstinacy  was  such  in  adopting  the  improvements,  that  the 
mills  on  the  Brandy  wine  for  a  time  lost  their  pre-eminence. 

In  the  year  1786,  Mr.  Evans  petitioned  the  legislature  of  Penn- 
sylvania for  the  exclusive  right  to  use  his  improvements  in  flour 
mills,  and  steam  carriages,  in  that  state,  and  in  the  year  follow- 
ing presented  a  similar  petition  to  the  legislature  of  Maryland.  In 
the  former  instance  he  was  only  successful  so  far  as  to  obtain  the 
privilege  of  the  mill  improvements ;  his  representations  concerning 
steam  carriages  were  considered  as  savoring  too  much  of  insanity 
to  deserve  notice.  He  was  more  fortunate  in  Maryland,  for,  al- 
though the  steam  project  was  laughed  at,  yet  one  of  his  friends,  a 
member,  very  judiciously  observed  that  the  grant  could  injure  no 
one,  for  he  did  not  think  that  any  man  in  the  world  had  thought  of 
such  a  thing  before,  he  therefore  wished  the  encouragement  might 
be  afforded,  as  there  was  a  prospect  that  it  would  produce  some- 
thing useful.  This  kind  of  argument  had  its  effect,  and  Evans 
received  all  that  he  asked  for,  and  from  that  period  considered 
himself  bound  in  honor  to  the  state  of  Maryland  to  produce  a  steam 
carriage,  as  soon  as  his  means  would  allow  him. 

For  several  years  succeeding  the  granting  of  his  petition  by  the 
legislature  of  Maryland,  Mr.  Evans  endeavored  to  obtain  some 
person  of  pecuniary  resources  to  join  with  him  in  his  plans ;  and 
for  this  purpose  explained  his  views  by  drafts,  and  otherwise,  to 
some  of  the  first  mechanics  in  the  country :  although  they  appeared 
in  several  instances  to  understand  them,  yet  declined  any  assistance 
from  a  fear  of  the  expense  and  difficulty  of  their  execution.* 

In  the  year  1800  or  1801,  Mr.  Evans,  never  having  found  any 
one  willing  to  contribute  to  the  expense,  or  even  to  encourage  him 
in  his  efforts,  determined  to  construct  a  steam  carriage  at  his  own 
expense.  Previous  to  commencing  he  explained  his  views  to  Ro- 
bert Patterson,  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  to  an  eminent  English  engineer.  They  both  de- 

*  I  certify  that  Oliver  Evans  did,  about  the  year  1789,  communicate  a  project 
to  me  of  propelling  land  carriages  by  the  power  of  steam,  and  did  solicit  me  to 
join  with  him  in  the  profits  of  the  same.  LEVI  HOLLINGSWORTH. 

'Baltimore,  Nov.  16,  1812. 

I  do  certify  that  about  1781,  (thirty-one  years  ago,)  Oliver  Evans,  in  conversa- 
tion with  me,  declared  that  by  the  power  of  steam  he  could  drive  any  thing ; 
wagons,  mills,  or  vessels  by  the  same  power.  ENOCH  ANDERSON. 

November  15,  1S12. 


OLIVER    EVANS.  75 

clared  the  principles  new  to  them,  and  advised  the  plan,  as  highly 
worthy  of  a  fair  experiment.  These  were  the  only  persons  who 
had  any  confidence,  or  afforded  encouraging  advice.  He  also 
communicated  his  plans  to  Mr.  B.  F.  Latrobe,  a  highly  scientific 
gentleman,  who  publicly  pronounced  them  as  chimerical,  and  at- 
tempted  to  demonstrate  the  absurdity  of  Mr.  Evans'  principles  in 
his  report  to  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Pennsylvania,  on  steam 
engines  :  in  which  he  also  endeavored  to  show  the  impossibility  of 
making  steamboats  useful.  In  this  report,  Mr.  Evans  is  one  of 
the  persons  alluded  to,  as  being  seized  with  the  " steam  mania" 
but  the  liberality  of  the  society  caused  them  to  reject  that  portion 
of  the  paper,  conceiving  that  they  had  no  right  to  set  up  their  opin- 
ions as  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  any  exertions  to  make  a  discovery, 
although  they  did  not  reject  that  gentleman's  demonstrations  respect- 
ing steamboats. 

In  consequence  of  the  determination  previously  alluded  to,  Mr. 
Evans  commenced  and  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
construction  of  a  steam  carriage,  when  the  idea  occurred  to  him, 
that  as  his  steam  engine  was  altogether  different  in  form,  as  well 
as  in  principle,  from  any  other  in  use,  a  patent  could  be  obtained 
for  it,  and  then  applied  to  mills,  more  profitably  than  to  carriages. 
The  steam  carriage  was  accordingly  laid  aside  for  a  season  of  more 
leisure,  and  the  construction  of  a  small  engine  was  commenced, 
with  a  cylinder  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  piston  of  eighteen  inches 
stroke,  for  a  mill  to  grind  plaster  of  Paris.  The  expense  of  its 
construction  far  exceeded  Mr.  Evans'  calculations,  and  before  the 
engine  was  finished  he  found  it  cost  him  all  he  was  worth.  He 
had  then  to  begin  the  world  anew,  at  the  age  of  forty-eight,  with  a 
large  family  to  support,  and  that  too  with  a  knowledge,  that  if  the 
trial  failed  his  credit  would  be  entirety  ruined,  and  his  prospects 
for  the  remainder  of  life  dark  and  gloomy.  But  fortune  favored 
him,  and  his  success  was  complete. 

In  a  brief  account  given  by  himself  of  his  experiments  in  steam, 
he  says,  "  I  could  break  and  grind  three  hundred  bushels  of  plaster 
of  Paris,  or  twelve  tons,  in  twenty-four  hours ;  and  to  show  its 
operations  more  fully  to  the  public,  I  applied  it  to  saw  stone,  on 
the  side  of  Market-street,  where  the  driving  of  twelve  saws  in 
heavy  frames,  sawing  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  feet  of  marble  in 
twelve  hours,  made  a  great  show  and  excited  much  attention.  I 
thought  this  was  sufficient  to  convince  the  thousands  of  spectators 
of  the  utility  of  my  discovery,  but  I  frequently  heard  them  inquire 
if  the  power  could  be  applied  to  saw  timber,  as  well  as  stone,  to 
grind  grain,  propel  boats,  &c.,  and  though  I  answered  in  the  affirm- 
ative, they  still  doubted.  I  therefore  determined  to  apply  my 


76  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

engine  to  all  new  uses ;  to  introduce  it  and  them  to  the  public. 
This  experiment  completely  tested  the  correctness  of  my  principles. 
The  power  of  my  engine  rises  in  a  geometrical  proportion,  while 
the  consumption  of  fuel  has  only  an  arithmetical  ratio ;  in  such 
proportion  that  every  time  I  added  one  fourth  more  to  the  consump- 
tion of  the  fuel,  its  powers  were  doubled ;  and  that  twice  the  quan- 
tity of  fuel  required  to  drive  one  saw,  would  drive  sixteen  saws  at 
least ;  for  when  I  drove  two  saws  the  consumption  was  eight  bushels 
of  coal  in  twelve  hours,  but  when  twelve  saws  were  driven,  the 
consumption  was  not  more  than  ten  bushels  ;  so  that  the  more  we 
resist  the  steam,  the  greater  is  the  effect  of  the  engine.  On  these 
principles  very  light  but  powerful  engines  can  be  made  suitable  for 
propelling  boats  and  land  carriages,  without  the  great  encumbrance 
of  their  weight  as  mentioned  in  Latrobe's  demonstration." 

In  the  year  1804,  Mr.  Evans,  by  order  of  the  board  of  health  of 
Philadelphia,  constructed  at  his  works,  situated  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  the  water,  a  machine  for  cleaning  docks.*  It  consisted  of  a 
large  flat  or  scow,  with  a  steam  engine  of  the  power  of  five  horses 
on  board,  to  work  machinery,  in  raising  the  mud  into  scows. 
This  was  considered  a  fine  opportunity  to  show  the  public  that  his 
engine  could  propel  both  land  and  water  conveyances.  When  the 
machine  was  finished,  he  fixed,  in  a  rough  and  temporary  manner, 
wheels  with  wooden  axletrees,  and  of  course,  under  the  influence  of 
great  friction.  Although  the  whole  weight  was  equal  to  two  hundred 
barrels  of  flour,  jet  his  small  engine  propelled  it  up  Market-street, 
and  round  the  circle  to  the  water  works,  where  it  was  launched 
into  the  Schuylkill.  A  paddle  wheel  was  then  applied  to  its  stern, 
and  it  thus  sailed  down  that  river  to  the  Delaware,  a  distance  of 
sixteen  miles,  leaving  all  vessels  that  were  under  sail  at  least  half 
way,  (the  wind  being  ahead,)  in  the  presence  of  thousands  of  spec- 
tators, which  he  supposed  would  have  convinced  them  of  the  prac- 
ticability of  steamboats  and  steam  carriages.  But  no  allowance 
was  made  by  the  public  for  the  disproportion  of  the  engine  to  its 
load,  nor  for  the  rough  manner  in  which  the  machinery  was  fixed, 
or  the  great  friction  and  ill  form  of  the  boat,  but  it  was  supposed 
that  this  was  the  utmost  it  could  perform.  Some  individuals  under- 
took to  ridicule  this  experiment  of  driving  so  great  a  weight  on 
land,  because  the  motion  was  too  slow  to  be  useful.  The  inventor 
silenced  them  by  answering  that  he  would  make  a  carriage 
propelled  by  steam,  for  a  wager  of  three  thousand  dollars,  to  run 
upon  a  level  road,  against  the  swiftest  horse  that  could  be  produced. 
This  machine  Evans  named  the  Oructor  Amphibolis,  which  is 

*  This  was  the  first  application  to  the  important  but  now  common  operation 
of  dredging. — American  edition  of  Wood's  Treatise  on  Rail  Roads. 


nl 


O 

S    > 
>    2 


§•  o 

Z'    G 


OLIVER  EVANS.  79 

believed  to  have  been  the  first  application,  in  America,  of  steam 
power  to  the  propelling  of  land  carriages. 

On  the  25th  of  September,  1804,  Evans  submitted  to  the  consi- 
deration of  the  Lancaster  turnpike  company,  a  statement  of  the 
costs  and  profits  of  a  steam  carriage  to  carry  one  hundred  barrels 
of  flour,  fifty  miles  in  twenty-four  hours ;  tending  to  show,  that  one 
such  steam  carriage  would  make  more  nett  profits  than  ten  wagons, 
drawn  by  five  horses  each,  on  a  good  turnpike  road,  and  offering 
to  build  one  at  a  very  low  price.  His  address  closed  as  follows  : 
"  It  is  too  much  for  an  individual  to  put  in  operation  every  improve- 
ment which  he  may  invent.  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  my  engines 
will  propel  boats  against  the  current  of  the  Mississippi,  and  wagons 
on  turnpike  roads,  with  great  profit.  I  now  call  upon  those  whose 
interest  it  is,  to  carry  this  invention  into  effect.  All  which  is  re- 
spectfully submitted  to  your  consideration."  Little  or  no  attention 
was  paid  to  the  offer. 

Had  Evans  received  the  patronage  and  pecuniaiy  assistance 
that  fell  to  the  lot  of  Fulton,  there  is  no  doubt  but  he  might  have 
shown  steamboats  in  operation  fifteen  or  twenty  years  previous 
to  the  successful  experiments  of  that  ingenious  individual.  This 
probability  is  strengthened  by  the  fact,  that  his  engine,  the  first* 
ever  invented  on  the  high-pressure  principle,  is  the  only  one  that 
can  be  applied  on  railways,  and  is  now  in  universal  use  on  the 
Mississippif  and  other  rapid  rivers,  where  great  power  is  required. 

*  "  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  to  the  American  reader,  that  the  claim 
respecting  the  high  pressure  steam  and  locomotive  engines  to  which  the  English 
assert,  is  entirely  without  foundation.  The  application  of  steam  in  this  manner 
and  to  these  purposes  had,  indeed,  been  contemplated,  but  never  reduced  to 

Sractice  until  the  experiments  alluded  to.  In  early  life,  Mr.  Evans  sent  Mr. 
oseph  Sampson  to  England  with  the  drawings  and  specifications  of  his  steam 
engines,  &c.  They  were  exhibited  to  numerous  engineers,  and  his  plans  were 
copied  by  Messrs.  Vivian  and  Trevithick,  without  any  acknowledgment :  the 
latter  persons  acquired  fame  and  fortune,  while  the  ingenious,  but  eccentric 
Evans,  died  poor,  neglected,  and  broken-hearted.  Fitch,  Fulton,  and  Evans, 
exhibit  a  singular  coincidence  in  their  history.  Posterity  will,  at  least,  render 
them  the  tartly  recompense  of  justice.  America  may,  therefore,  claim,  the  invention 
of  locomotive  engines  with  even  more  justice  than  that  of  steamboats, — inventions 
which  are  destined  to  revolutionize  the  commerce  and  defence  of  nations." — 
Amer.  Edit,  of  Wood's  Treatise  on  Railroads. 

t  "  Mr.  Evans  wrote  in  1802  to  gentlemen  in  Kentucky,  informing  them  he 
had  got  his  engine  in  motion,  which  he  had  long  before  invented,  for  propelling 
boats  and  carriages.  These  letters  were  shown  to  Captain  James  M'Keaver, 
who  associated  with  Mr.  Louis  Valcourt,  to  build  a  steamboat  to  ply  between 
New  Orleans  and  Natchez.  Valcourt  came  to  Philadelphia  to  employ  Mr.  Evans 
to  make  a  steam  engine,  while  the  captain  should  build  a  boat  eighty  feet  keel, 
and  eighteen  feet  beam.  Two  of  Mr.  Evans'  company  of  workmen  went  with 
the  engine  to  meet  the  boat  at  New  Orleans,  to  set  it  up,  which  they  completed, 
and  the  boat  was  ready  for  experiment ;  but  bj  this  time  the  water  had  subsided. 
and  left  the  boat  half  a  mile  from  the  water  :  their  money  being  expended,  their 
credit  exhausted,  and  the  river  not  expected  to  rise  in  less  than  six  months !  In 


80  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

While  Evans'  conceptions  respecting  the  power  of  steam  reflect 
the  highest  credit  upon  his  sagacity  and  talent,  his  predictions  of 
its  application  may  well  be  termed  prophetic.  In  some  of  his 
writings,  published  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  he  re- 
marks  :  "  The  time  will  come  when  people  will  travel  in  stages, 
moved  by  steam  engines,  from  one  city  to  another,  almost  as  fast 
as  birds  fly,  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  an  hour.  Passing  through  the 
air  with  such  velocity,  changing  the  scene  in  such  rapid  succession, 
will  be  the  most  rapid  exhilarating  exercise.  A  carriage  (steam) 
will  set  out  from  Washington  in  the  morning,  the  passengers  will 
breakfast  at  Baltimore,  dine  at  Philadelphia,  and  sup  in  New  York 
the  same  day.  To  accomplish  this,  two  sets  of  railways  will  be 
laid,  so  nearly  level  as  not  in  any  way  to  deviate  more  than  two 
degrees  from  a  horizontal  line,  made  of  wood  or  iron,  or  smooth 
paths  of  broken  stone  or  gravel,  with  a  rail  to  guide  the  carriages 
so  that  they  may  pass  each  other  in  different  directions,  and  travel 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  Engines  will  drive  boats  ten  or  twelve 
miles  per  hour,  and  there  will  be  many  hundred  steamboats  run- 
ning  on  the  Mississippi,  as  predicted  years  ago." 

After  a  lapse  of  years,  as  the  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  flour  gradually  came  into  popular  use,  the  inducements  to  in- 
fringe upon  Evans'  rights  increased,  until  he  was  obliged  to  appeal 
for  redress  to  the  United  States  circuit  court  of  Pennsylvania,  but, 
through  some  informality  in  the  patent,  an  unfavorable  decision 
was  given.  Thus  was  he  deprived  of  all  means  of  recovering 
what  was  so  justly  due.  Agreeably  to  the  request  of  counsel,  he 
then  petitioned  congress  for  a  new  patent.  In  stating  his  case,  he 
observed,  "  that  he  had  been  at  a  great  expense  in  publishing  and 
disseminating  these  inventions,  travelling  either  by  himself  or  agents 

this  predicament,  Mr.  William  Donaldson  offered  them  money  to  take  the  engine 
out  of  the  boat,  and  set  it  to  drive  a  saw-mill,  that  could  go  only  by  the  waters 
of  the  river  overflowing  its  banks,  and  was  then  standing.  Their  necessities 
compelled  them  to  accept  the  offer.  When  they  got  the  saw-mill  going,  they 
wrote  that  to  their  astonishment  the  engine  was  sawing  three  thousand  feet  of 
boards  per  day  of  twelve  hours,  which  had  been  selling  at  the  enormous  price 
of  fifty  to  sixty  dollars  per  one  thousand  feet ;  that  they  were  now  convinced 
there  could  be  no  doubt  that  the  steamboat  would  have  succeeded  beyond  their 
expectations  ;  that  they  would  soon  retrieve  their  losses,  and  would  order  an- 
other engine  for  the  boat.  But,  alas  !  their  fair  prospects  were  soon  blasted  ; 
for  there,  too,  were  some  of  the  wise  opposers  of  improvements.  This  mill  was 
likely  to  deprive  some  who  sawed  lumbar  by  hand  of  profitable  jobs,  and  it  was 
set  on  fire  ;  the  two  first  attempts  the  fire  was  discovered  in  time  to  be  extin- 
guished ;  but  in  the  third,  those  infernal  incendiaries  had  like  to  have  succeeded 
not  only  in  destroying  the  mill,  but  with  it  those  who  had  slept  in  it,  to  guard  it. 
Thus  were  two  noble  and  enterprising  men  ruined,  in  the  most  laudable  attempts 
to  establish  steamboats  on  the  Mississippi.  They  had  expended  fifteen  thousand 
dollars,  and  would  have  succeededThree  or  four  years  before  Fulton  and  Living- 
ston, but  for  the  reasons  above  stated." — Patent  Right  Oppression  Exposed. 


OLIVER  EVANS.  81 

for  thirteen  years,  throughout  the  country,  from  state  to  state,  and 
from  mill  to  mill,  to  instruct  workmen  in  their  manufacture,  and 
millers  their  use :  and  in  this  way  had  expended  the  small  fees 
which  were  received  from  those  who  had  generously  and  freely 
paid  for  their  license."  These  arguments  were  so  clearly  founded 
on  justice,  that  government  could  not  but  listen  to  his  claims,  and 
the  petition  was  granted,  January  21,  1808. 

Ere  long,  a  memorial  was  presented  to  congress  by  John  Wor- 
thington,  Elisha  Tyson,  and  other  interested  millers,  against  Oliver 
Evans,  stating  "  that  the  public  had  been  grossly  deceived  in  re- 
gard to  Evans  being  the  original  inventor  of  his  patented  mill 
machines ;  for,  so  far  from  having  invented  ALL,  he  was  not  the 
original  inventor  of  any  of  them  :  and  that  they  could  not  believe 
that  those  in  authority  intended  to  let  loose  upon  the  community 
this  exorbitant  monopolist  with  so  grievous  and  despotic  a  power. 
They  therefore  petitioned  to  have  the  subject  once  more  taken 
into  consideration."  Evans  immediately  presented  a  counter  me- 
morial, in  which  he  completely  proved  the  falsity  of  their  state- 
ments, and  the  interested  motives  of  his  opponents.  Independent 
of  this,  some  of  the  most  prominent*  individuals  in  the  community, 
on  this  and  other  occasions,  came  forward  unsolicited  with  their 
testimony  in  his  behalf.  In  the  result,  Evans  was  sustained. 

*  The  following,  among  other  statements,  was  furnished  by  the  well-known 
editor  of  Niles'  Register,  on  the  occasion  of  some  of  Mr.  Evans'  lawsuits : — 

"  The  subscriber,  unsolicited  by,  and  unknown  to  Oliver  Evans,  feels  it  due 
to  truth  and  justice  to  state  his  recollections  of  the  mill  machinery..  He  well 
remembers,  when  at  the  Brandywine  mills,  they  used  to  hoist  the  flour  from  the 
lower  story  to  the  loft,  in  large  buckets  or  tubs,  filled  by  shovels  from  the  chests 
into  which  the  flour  fell  from  the  millstones  :  he  has  also  frequently  seen  a  man 
employed  at  these  mills  in  heaping  the  flour  over  the  hopper  to  let  it  pass  into 
the  bolting  cloth  below.  Born  in  the  neighborhood  of  these  mills,  ana  passing 
his  infancy  and  youth  at  Wilmington,  within  half  a  mile  of  them ;  and  going 
there  to  swim  and  to  skate,  as  well  as  for  other  juvenile  amusements,  the  place 
presenting  delightful  advantages  for  their  enjoyment,  he  has  passed  through 
those  mills,  or  some  of  them,  many  hundred  times  before  and  since  the  improve- 
ments were  introduced.  His  young  mind  was  much  pleased  to  observe  the  little 
buckets  (the  elevator,}  supplying  the  place  of  the  large  one,  above  alluded  to ; 
and  he  was  much  amused  to  see  the  labors  of  the  hopper-boy,  that  spread,  cooled, 
and  collected  the  meal,  without  manual  labor,  to  the  spot  where  it  was  wanted  ; 
nor  was  he  less  agreeably  surprised  at  the  operation  of  the  conveyor,  that,  while 
it  cooled  the  flour,  passed  it  on  to  the  place  where  the  elevator  caught  it.  He 
also  recollects  to  have  heard  it  stated  that  the  introduction  of  this  machinery 
would  throw  more  than  twenty  persons  out  of  employ  at  Brandywine ;  and 
always  understood  that  these  innovations  on  the  old  mode  of  manufacturing  flour 
were  made  by  Oliver  Evans. 

"  While  writing  the  above,  an  old  schoolmate  is  at  my  elbow,  who  has  pre- 
cisely the  same  recollections.  Neither  of  us  pretend  to  know  that  Oliver  Evans 
really  invented  those  things ;  but  are  certain  that  common  fame  gave  him  the 
credit  of  them  at  the  time  they  were  introduced  at  the  Brandywine  mills. 

"  H.  NILES, 

"  Baltimore,  Feb.  10,  1813."  «  Editor  of  the  Register." 


82  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

A  few  years  subsequent  to  his  marriage,  Mr.  Evans  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  where  he  finally  established  an  iron  foundry  and 
steam  factory.  Here  he  prepared  his  two  works  for  the  press,  viz. 
the  Young  Millwright's  and  the  Young  Steam  Engineer's  Guides, — 
productions  every  way  worthy  of  their  author.  In  1810,  his  two 
sons-in-law,  Messrs.  James  Rush  and  David  Muhlenburg,  joined 
and  continued  in  business  with  him  until  the  time  of  his  decease, 
which  took  place  from  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  April  21st, 
1819. 


SAMUEL  SLATER. 


SAMUEL  SLATER, 

THE  FATHER  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COTTON  MANUFACTURES. 


Birth. — Is  apprenticed  to  the  partner  of  Arkwright  in  the  business  of  cotton 
spinning. — Fondness  for  experiments  in  machinery. — Improves  the  "  heart 
motion." — Industry. — Appointed  overseer. — Anecdote. — Forms  the  idea  of 
coming  to  America. — Is  obliged  to  leave  secretly. — Adventures  in  London. — 
Sails  for  the  United  States. — Obtains  a  temporary  employment. — Dispiriting 
results  of  the  attempts  to  establish  the  cotton  manufacture  previous  to  his 
arrival. — Applies  to  Moses  Brown. — Visits  Pawtucket. — Enters  into  the  cotton 
business  with  Messrs.  Almy  and  Brown.- — Low  state  of  manufactures. — Dis- 
appointment.— Agrees  to  erect  the  Arkwright  patents. — Affecting  anecdote. — 
Forms  a  tender  attachment.— Builds  the  "  Old  Mill"  at  Pawtucket— Preju 
dice. — Prosperity. — Extension  of  the  cotton  manufacture. — Establishes  the 
first  American  Sunday  school. — Character. — Conclusion  of  his  domestic  his- 
tory.— Death. — Tribute  to  his  memory. 

WE,  of  the  present  day,  in  witnessing  the  extent  and  variety 
of  our  manufactures,  can  scarcely  realize  the  low  state  in  which 
they  were,  some  forty  or  fifty  years  since :  nor,  without  investi- 
gation, can  we  form  any  conception  of  the  difficulties  incident  to 
their  establishment.  In  none  were  they  so  formidable  as  in  the 
cotton  manufacture  :  and  it  is  judged  that  Ae,  who  forsook  the 
endearments  of  home  for  a  land  of  strangers,  to  seek  its  estab- 
lishment among  us,  certainly  claims  a  place  amid  the  other  char- 
acters that  comprise  this  volume. 

The  subject  of  this  memoir*  was  born  at  Belper,  in  Derbyshire, 
England,  June  9,  1768.  His  father  was  one  of  those  independent 
yeomanry  who  farm  their  own  lands,  forming  a  distinct  class  from 
the  tenantry.  Young  Slater  received  the  advantages  of  an  ordi- 
nary English  education ;  and  while  at  school,  manifested  a  general 
fondness  for  study,  but  more  particularly  for  that  of  arithmetic,  one 
by  far  the  most  important  in  disciplining  the  mind  for  the  business 
of  life-^-a  talent  almost  universal  with  those  who  become  distin- 
guished for  mechanical  ingenuity. 

The  cotton  spinning  business,  at  this  time  in  its  infancy,  was 
carried  on  in  the  neighborhood  by  Jedediah  Strutt,  the  partner  of 

*  See  White's  "  Memoir  of  Slater ;  connected  with  a  History  of  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in  England  and  America :  with  Remarks 
on  the  Moral  Influence  of  Manufactories  in  the  United  States ;" — a  work  con- 
taining a  great  deal  of  valuable  and  interesting  information. 

7 


S6  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

the  celebrated  Arkwright.  Mr.  Slater  having  frequent  intercourse 
with  Mr.  Strutt,  made  an  agreement  with  him  to  take  his  son  into  his 
employment.  In  August  of  the  same  year,  young  Slater  lost  his 
father ;  and  thus,  at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  was  left  his  own 
master.  A  short  time  subsequent  to  this  event,  his  employer 
asked  him  if  he  intended  to  continue  in  the  business.  Previous 
to  giving  a  decisive  answer,  he  inquired  his  opinion  of  its  perma- 
nency. The  reply  was,  that  it  would  not  probably  continue  as 
good  as  then,  but,  under  proper  management,  would  doubtless 
always  be  a  fair  business.  So  little  did  even  its  founders  foresee 
the  vast  extension  to  which  it  was  designed,  and  the  astonishing 
change  in  politics,  commerce,  and  the  relations  of  states  to  each 
other,  which  have  been  the  consequence.  Indeed,  all  the  cotton 
manufacture  of  England  was  then  confined  to  a  small  district  in 
Derbyshire,  and  its  whole  amount  not  greater  than  that  done  at 
the  present  day  in  a  single  village  in  New  England. 

Young  Slater  early  manifested  the  bent  of  his  mind,  frequently 
spending  his  Sundays  alone  in  making  experiments  in  machinery ; 
and  for  six  months  was  without  seeing  any  of  his  friends,  though 
living  only  a  mile  from  home.  This  was  not  from  a  want  of  filial 
or  fraternal  affection,  but  solely  through  devotion  to  his  employ, 
ment.  As  showing  the  propensity  and  expertness  of  his  mind  at 
this  period,  the  following  circumstance  is  related  : — His  master  in 
vain  endeavored  to  improve  the  "  heart  motion  "  so  as  to  raise  or 
enlarge  the  yarn  in  the  middle,  in  order  to  contain  more  on  the 
bobbin.  Slater  seeing  through  the  difficulty,  went  to  work,  and 
the  next  Sunday  (his  only  spare  time)  succeeded  in  that,  which  his 
employer,  with  all  his  ingenuity,  was  unable  to  effect.  This  gen- 
eral application  on  Slater's  part  was  not  without  its  benefits ;  his 
employers  gained  so  much  confidence  in  his  business  habits  and 
industry,  that  during  the  last  four  or  five  years  of  his  stay  with 
them  he  was  engaged  as  an  overseer.  This  general  oversight, 
with  his  close  habits  of  observation,  eventually  proved  of  incalcu- 
lable service. 

Slater  was  fortunate  in  having  for  his  employer  a  man  of  so 
much  stability  and  integrity,  who  took  a  great  deal  of  pains  to 
properly  mould  his  character  and  habits.  He  was,  like  all  other 
business  men,  a  strict  economist  in  that  which  related  to  his  pro- 
fession, and  would  often  enforce  his  maxims  on  his  young  protege. 
As  an  illustration,  the  following  anecdote  is  related  : — When 
Slater  was  yet  a  boy,  he  passed  by  some  loose  cotton  on  the  floor  ; 
Mr.  Strutt  called  him  back,  with  a  request  to  pick  it  up,  for  it  was 
by  attending  to  such  small  things  that  great  fortunes  were  accumu- 
lated ;  at  the  same  time  observing  to  his  wife,  by  way  of  impress- 


SAMUEL  SLATER.  87 

ing  it  more  strongly  on  the  mind  of  his  favorite  apprentice,  that  he 
"  was  afraid  that  Samuel  would  never  be  rich." 

Slater  faithfully  served  his  indenture  with  Mr.  Strutt.  This 
accomplishment  of  his  full  time  was  characteristic  with  him,  and 
was  praiseworthy  and  beneficial,  as  it  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
adaptation  to  business,  and  finally  to  its  perfect  knowledge. 

He  early  turned  his  attention  to  the  United  States,  as  affording 
a  vast  field  for  enterprise  in  his  department.  This  originated 
partially  from  an  apprehension  that  the  business  would  be  ruined 
by  competition  in  his  native  country,  and,  with  this  idea,  he  would 
seek  every  means  to  gain  information.  The  motives  which 
finally  induced  him  to  leave,  were  the  various  rumors  which 
reached  Derbyshire  of  the  anxiety  of  the  different  state  govern, 
ments  here  to  encourage  manufactures.  Slater  was  more  strongly 
confirmed  in  this  determination  on  observing  a  newspaper  account 
of  a  liberal  bounty  granted  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  to  a 
person  who  had  imperfectly  succeeded  in  constructing  a  carding 
machine,  to  make  rolls  for  jennies  ;  and  the  knowledge,  too,  that  a 
society  had  been  authorized  by  the  same  legislature  for  the  promo- 
tion of  manufactures. 

Having  made  due  preparation,  he  secretly,  and  without  divulging 
his  plans  to  even  a  single  individual,  bid  farewell  to  the  home  of 
his  childhood.  What  were  his  feelings  in  gazing,  for  the  last  time, 
on  the  countenances  of  his  mother,  brothers,  and  sisters,  only  those 
who"  have  been  in  similar  circumstances  can  imagine  ;  his  young 
heart  was  full,  but  a  youthful  ambition  fired  his  soul,  and  enabled 
him  to  overcome  his  emotions.  While  waiting  in  London  until 
the  vessel  was  ready,  he  wrote  to  his  friends,  informing  them  of 
his  plans,  but,  for  obvious  reasons,  did  not  put  the  letter  into  the 
office  until  ready  to  embark. 

The  ship  being  ready,  Mr.  Slater  embarked,  Sept.  1st,  1789, 
being  at  that  time  only  a  few  months  over  twenty-one  years  of 
age.  He  was  aware  of  the  danger  incurred  in  leaving  England 
as  a  machinist,  and  therefore  took  no  drawings  of  any  sort,  trust, 
ing  solely  to  the  powers  of  his  memory  to  enable  him  to  construct 
the  most  complicated  of  machinery.  Indeed,  he  had  no  writing 
with  him  excepting  his  indenture,  which  was  his  sole  introduction 
to  the  western  world.  After  a  tedious  passage  of  sixty-six  days, 
he  arrived  in  New  York.  Here  he  obtained  a  temporary  employ- 
ment, until  something  permanent  should  arise. 

Previous  to  Slater's  arrival  in  America,  every  attempt  to  spin 
cotton  warp  or  twist,  or  any  other  yarn,  by  water  power,  had 
totally  failed,  and  every  effort  to  import  the  patent  machinery  of 
England  had  proved  abortive.  Much  interest  had  been  excited  in 


88  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

Philadelphia,  New  York,  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  and  Providence 
but  it  was  found  impossible  to  compete  with  the  superior  machin- 
ery of  Derbyshire.*  Distrust  and  despondency  had  affected  the 

*  At  a  meeting  held  in  Boston  a  few  years  since,  on  the  subject  of  opening  a 
railroad  to  Albany,  the  infant  difficulties  of  our  manufactures  were  thus  adverted 
toby  Mr.Hallet:— 

"  We  talk  now  of  the  future,  in  regard  to  railways,  with  doubt,  as  of  an  expe- 
riment yet  to  be  tested,  and  many  look  upon  the  calculations  of  the  sanguine  as 
mere  speculating  dreams.  Here  is  a  new  avenue  about  to  be  opened  to  the  de- 
velopment of  resources,  and  yet  men  hesitate  to  go  forward.  Let  us  test  what 
we  can  reasonably  anticipate  in  this,  by  what  we  know  has  happened,  in  the 
development  of  resources  once  deemed  quite  as  visionary,  through  another  me- 
dium of  industry  and  enterprise — domestic  manufactures.  There  is  not  an  adult 
among  us  who  cannot  remember  the  time  when  it  was  a  source  of  mortification 
to  be  dressed  in  homespun.  Now,  our  own  fabrics  are  among  the  best  and 
richest  stuffs  of  every  day  consumption,  and  the  products  of  our  looms  are  pre- 
ferred even  in  foreign  countries.  Forty  years  ago,  who  would  have  dared  to 
conjure  up  the  visions  of  such  manufacturing  cities  as  Lowell,  and  Fall  River, 
your  Ware,  Waltham,  and  the  hundreds  of  flourishing  villages  which  now  con- 
stitute the  most  prosperous  communities  in  this  commonwealth  ?  How  small 
and  feeble  was  the  beginning  of  all  this!  In.  1787,  the  first  cotton  mill  in  this, 
state  was  got  up  in  Beverly,  by  John  Cabot  and  others,  and  in  three  years  it  was 
nearly  given  up,  in  consequence  of  the  difficulties  which  the  first  beginning  of 
the  development  of  the  vast  resources  of  domestic  industry,  in  our  state,  had  to 
encounter.  I  hold  in  my  hand,"  said  Mr.  Ballet,  "  a  document  of  uncommon 
interest,  on  this  subject,  found  in  the  files  of  the  Massachusetts  senate  ;  which 
will  show  the  early  struggles  of  domestic  manufactures,  and  the  doubts  enter- 
tained of  their  success,  more  forcibly  than  any  fact  that  can  be  stated.  It  is  the 
petition  of  the  proprietors  of  the  little  Beverly  cotton  mill,  in  1790,  for  aid  from 
the  legislature  to  save  them  from  being  compelled  to  abandon  the  enterprise 
altogether.  This  petition  was  referred  to  the  committee  of  both  houses  for  the 
encouragement  of  arts,  agriculture,  and  manufactures,  (of  which  Nathaniel 
Gorham  was  chairman ;)  and  with  all  the  lights  which  that  intelligent  commit?- 
tee  then  had  on  this  subject,  destined  to  become  one  of  the  greatest  means  of 
developing  resources  ever  opened  to  national  prosperity,  they  cautiously  reported 
that  '  from  the  best  information  we  can  obtain,  we  are  of  opinion  that  the  said 
manufactory  is  of  great  public  utility.  But  owing  to  the  great  expenses  incurred 
in  providing  machines,  and  other  incidents  usually  attending  a  new  business,  the 
said  manufactory  is  upon  the  decline,  and  unless  some  public  assistance  can  be 
afforded,  is  in  danger  of  failing.  Your  committee  therefore  report,  as  their 
opinion)  that  the  petitioners  have  a  grant  of  one  thousand  pounds,  to  be  raised 
in  a  lottery :'  on  condition  that  they  give  bonds  that  the  money  be  actually  ap- 
propriated in  such  a  way  as  will  most  effectually  promote  the  '  manufacturing* 

of  cotton  piece  goods  in  this  commonwealth Where  now  is  the  little 

Beverly  cotton  mill  ?  And  what  has  been  the  mighty  development  of  resources 
in  domestic  industry  in  forty-five  years,  since  the  date  of  that  petition,  when  the 
wisest  men  among  us  had  got  no  farther  than  to  a  belief  that  the  said  manufac- 
tory was  of  great  public  utility  !  Is  the-re  any  vision  of  the  great  public  utility  of 
railways,"  said  Mr.  Hallet,  "  which  can  go  beyond  what  now  is,  and  what  will 
be  in  forty  years,  that  can  exceed  in  contrast  what  we  know  once  was  and  now 
is,  in  the  development  of  resources  by  the  investment  of  capital  and  industry  in 
domestic  manufactures?  The  petitioners  for  the  little  Beverly  cotton  mill  were 
doubtless  deemed  to  be  absurdly  extravagant,  when  they  hinted  that  the  manu- 
facture of  cottons  would  one  day  not  only  afford  a  supply  for  domestic  consump- 
tion, but  a  staple  for  exportation.  But  what  do  we  now  see  ?  Our  domestic 
fabrics  find  a  market  in  every  clime,  and  vessels,  lying  at  your  wharves,  are 
receiving  these  goods  to  export  to  Calcutta. 

"  The  world  is  beginning  to  understand  the  true  uses  of  wealth,  to  develop 


SAMUEL  SLATER.  §9 

strongest  minds,  disappointment  and  repeated  loss  of  property  had 
entirely  disheartened  these  pioneers  in  the  production  of  home- 
spun cloth.  To  the  subject  of  this  memoir  belongs  the  honor  of 
having  solely,  by  his  own  personal  knowledge  and  skill,  constructed 
and  put  in  motion  the  whole  series  of  Arkwright's  patents,  and  in 
such  perfect  operation,  as  to  produce  as  good  yarn  and  cotton 
cloth  of  various  descriptions  as  the  English, 

In  the  course  of  Slater's  inquiries  for  the  most  eligible  place 
as  the  scene  of  his  first  essay  in  America,  he  was  informed  that 
attempts  had  lately  been  made  in  Providence  and  its  vicinity, 
under  the  auspices  of  Moses  Brown,,  who  was  in  want  of  a  manager 
in  spinning.  He  immediately  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Brown, 
and  received  in  reply  a  very  urgent  request  to*  render  his  services. 
In  this  letter  he  offered  Slateiv  if  he  could  work  the  machinery 
they  had  on  hand,  alt  the  profits  of  the  business,,  and  held  out  the 
promise  of  the  credit,  as  well  as  the  advantages  of  perfecting  the 
first  water  mill  in  America. 

Arrangements  were  entered  into  between  Almy,  Brown,  and 
Slater,  to  commence  cotton  spinning  at  Pawtucket. 

the  resources  of  the  country;  and  it  is  in  great  enterprises,  which  benefit  the 
public  more  than  those  immediately  concerned  in  them,  that  we  have  a  practical 
demonstration  of  the  doctrine  of  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number. 
Much  is  said,  and  more  feared,  about  the  divisions  of  the  rich  and  the  poor. 
But  in  truth,  in  our  happy  institutions,  we  need  have  no  poor,  forming  a  distinct 
class  among  the  citizens.  Where  is  your  populace,  your  rabble  ?  is  an  inquiry 
which  has  often  puzzled  the  foreigner  who  has  passed  through  our  streets  where 
thronged  by  a  multitude.  We  have  no  populace — no  rabble,  but  free  and  inde^ 
pendent  citizens.  What  has  made  them  so  ?  The  development  of  our  resources. 
What  has  stopped  the  tide  of  emigration  that  once  threatened  to  depopulate  New 
England  ?  The  development  of  our  resources.  Go  on  developing  these  resources, 
and  there  need,  be  no  fear  of  setting  the  poor  against  the  rich,  for  there  will 
be  no  poor  to  set  against  them.  All  will  be  rich,  for  they  wilt  kave  enough., 
and  no  man  is  in  reality  any  richer  for  possessing  what  he  cannot  use.  When 
men  of  capital  are  found  hoarding  it,  holding  it  back  from  enterprises,  and*  cau- 
tious of  doing  any  thing  to  develop  the  resources  of  a  community,  there  is  there 
just  cause  to  fear  the  operation  of  unequal  and  injurious  distinctions.  Take 
from  industry  and  enterprise  the  means  of  acquiring  wealth,  cut  off  commerce, 
manufactures,  canals,  and  railways,  and  you  will  lay  the  surest  foundation1  pos- 
sible for  the  despotism  of  one  class  over  another.  But  open  all  these  great 
resources  to  all — extend  your  facilities  of  intercourse-  throughout  the  country, 
and  you  cannot  repress  the  energies  of  men ;  you  cannot  keep  them  poor  long 
enough  to  mark  them  as  a  class..  You*  gradations  in*  society  will  be  stepped 
over,  forward  and  backward,  so  often,  that  no  distinct  line  can  be  kept  up..  This 
is  the  vast  moral  power,  which  is  exerted  on  society  by  the  investment  of  capital 
for  public  benefit,  without  unjust  privileges-;  in.  great  projects:  Here  are  the- 
true  uses  of  wealth,  in,  a  government  like  ours,  and  this  great  specific  lies  at  the 
bottom  of  the  philosophy  of  our  political  economy.  Develop  the  resources  of 
the  country — place  the  means  of  wealth  within  the  reach-  of  industry,  and  you 
produce  the  happy  medium  in  society.  All  will  then  move  forward  evenly,  as 
on  the  level  of  a  railroad,  with  occasional  inclined  planes  and  elevations,  but 
none  that  can  stop  the  powerful  locomotives  which,  impel  forward  every  New 
Eiiglander — enterprise  and  moral  energy." 

7* 


QO  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

A  few  days  subsequent  to  his  arrival  in  Providence,  Mr.  Brown 
took  him  to  view  the  machinery  in  a  mill  which  he  had  erected 
at  Pawtucket.  On  examination,  Mr.  Slater  felt  dispirited  ;  and 
shaking  his  head,  observed,  "  these  will  not  do — they  are  good 
for  nothing  in  their  present  condition,  nor  can  they  be  made  to 
answer."  After  various  disappointments,  it  was  proposed  that  he 
should  erect  the  series  of  machines  called  the  Arkwright  patents. 
This  he  promised  to  perform,  provided  he  was  furnished  with  a 
man  to  work  on  wood,  who  should  be  under  bonds  not  to  steal  the 
patterns,  or  disclose  the  nature  of  the  works.  "  Under  my  pro- 
posals," says  he,  "  if  I  do  not  make  as  good  yarn  as  they  do  in 
England,  I  will  have  nothing  for  my  services,  but  will  throw  the 
whole  of  what  I  have  attempted  over  the  bridge." 

On  the  2.1st  of  December,  1790,  Mr.  Slater  started  three  cards, 
drawing,  roving,  and  seventy-two  spindles,  which  were  operated 
by  an  old  fulling-mill  water-wheel  in  a  clothier's  shop  at  the  western 
end  of  Pawtucket  bridge.  In  this  place  they  continued  the  spin- 
ning until  the  subsequent  erection  of  the  "old  mill,"  so  called. 
The  difficulties  under  which  these  first  measures  towards  the 
establishment  of  the  business  were  pursued,  can  hardly  be  con- 
ceived at  the  present  day,  even  by  a  practical  machinist  or  manu- 
facturer. The  basin  of  the  Narragansett  bay,  and  the  small,  but 
invaluable  streams  that  fall  into  it  on  every  side,  did  not,,  at  that 
early  day,  form,  as  they  now  do,  a  continuous  hive  of  mechanical 
industry,  enterprise,  and  skill,  where  every  sort  of  material,  and 
even  the  most  minute  subdivision  of  handicraft  ingenuity,  can  be 
procured  at  will.  There  were  no  magazines  or  workmen.  With 
the  exception  of  scythes,  anchors,  horse-shoes,  ploughs,  nails, 
cannon,  shot,  and  a  few  other  articles  of  ironv  there  was  no 
staple  manufacture  for  exportation.  The  mechanism  then  applied 
in  their  manufacture  was  almost  as  simple  as  the  first  impulse  of 
water  or  steam.  Even  the  side  motion  of  the  card  machine  had 
not  been  adopted ;  the  first  hint  for  its  use  having  been  obtained 
several  years  after.  Although  Mr.  Slater  had  full  confidence  in 
his  own  remembrance  of  every  part,  and  ability  to  perfect  the 
work,  he  found  it  next  to  an  impossibility  to  get  those  who  could 
make  any  thing  like  his  models.  But  there  are  few  difficulties 
that  can  discourage  an  ingenious,  enterprising,  and  determined 
mind.  The  various  materials  required  for  the  first  machines  were 
collected  at  much  expense  from  different  parts  of  the  country,. and 
young  Slater's  own  skill  and  perseverance  supplied  the  place  of 
other  mechanics. 

It  was  now,  when  he  flattered  himself  with  an  entire  success, 
that  an  unforeseen  difficulty  arose.     After  the  frames  were  ready 


SAMUEL  SLATER.  91 

for  operation,  he  prepared  the  cotton  and  started  the  cards,  but  it 
rolled  up  on  the  top  cards  instead  of  passing  through  the  small 
cylinder.  This  was  the  cause  of  the  greatest  perplexity,  and  days 
were  passed  in  the  utmost  anxiety  as  to  the  final  result.  On 
advising  with  his  assistant  and  pointing  out  the  defect,  he  per- 
ceived  that  the  teeth  of  the  cards  were  not  crooked  enough ;  as 
they  had  no  good  card  leather,  the  punctures  were  made  by  hand, 
and  consequently  were  too  large,  so  that  the  teeth  fell  back  from 
their  proper  place.  Luckily  it  occurred  to  them  to  beat  the  teeth 
with  a  piece  of  grindstone ;  this  gave  them  the  proper  crook,  and, 
to  their  joy  and  relief,  the  machinery  worked  perfectly. 

On  Slater's  arrival  in  Pawtucket,  he  was  introduced  into'  the 
worthy  family  of  Mr.  Oziel  Wilkinson  as  a  boarder.  These 
people  were  Quakers,  and  became  greatly  interested  in  the  young 
stranger ;  they  have  since  described  his  conduct  during  the  diffi- 
culty just  alluded  to.  When  leaning  his  head  over  the  fire-place, 
they  heard  him  utter  deep  sighs,  and  frequently  observed  the  tears 
roll  from  his  eyes.  He  said  but  little  of  his  fears  and  apprehen- 
sions ;  but  Mrs.  Wilkinson,  perceiving  his  distress,  with  a  motherly 
kindness  inquired,  "  Art  thou  sick,  Samuel  ?"  He  then  explained 
to  them  the  nature  of  his  trial,  and  showed  the  point  on  which  he 
was  most  tender.  "  If,"  said  he,  "  I  am  frustrated  in  my  carding 
machine,,  they  will  think  me  an  impostor."  He  was  apprehensive 
that  no  suitable  cards  could  be  obtained,  short  of  England ;  and 
from  thence  none  were  allowed  to  be  exported. 

While  in  this  family,  a  tender  attachment  arose  between  him. 
self  and  one  of  its  female  members,  Miss  Hannah  Wilkinson. 
He  was  happy  in  fixing  his  affections  so  soon  on  one  who  loved 
him,,  and  one  so  worthy ;  this  was  the  loadstone  that  served  to 
bind  him  to  the  place,  when  every  thing  else  appeared  dreary  and 
discouraging.  Her  parents  being  Friends,  could  not  consistently 
give  consent  to  her  marriage  out  of  the  society,  and  talked  of 
sending  her  away  some  distance  to  school,  which  occasioned  Mr. 
Slater  to  say,  "  You  may  send  her  where  you  please,  but  I  will 
follow  her  to  the  ends  of  the  earth."  Though  absorbed  in  per- 
plexing  business,  his  hours  of  relaxation  were  cheering  ;  he  spent 
them  in  telling  Hannah  and  her  sister  the  story  of  his  early  life, 
the  tales  of  his  home,  of  his  family  connections,  and  of  his 
father  land. 

This  introduction  was  one  of  the  favorable  circumstances  that 
finally  secured  his  success.  Here  was  found  a  father  and  mother, 
who  were  kind  to  him  as  to  their  own  son.  He  was  not  distrust, 
ful  of  his  ability  to  support  a  family — did  not  wait  to  grow  rich 
before  marriage,  but  was  willing  to  take  his  bride  for  better  and 


92  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

for  worse ;  and  she  received  the  young  stranger  as  the  man  of 
her  choice,  the  object  of  her  first  love.  This  connection  with 
Oziel  Wilkinson  was  of  great  service  to  him,  as  a  stranger,  inex- 
perienced in  the  world  beyond  his  peculiar  sphere.  Besides,  it  is 
well  known,  that  sixty  years  since,  the  contrast  of  character  of 
New  England  men  and  manners,  and  other  peculiarities,  were 
very  great  between  the  two  countries.  No  one  knows  the  heart 
of  a  stranger  but  he  who  has  been  from  home  in  a  strange  land, 
without  an  old  acquaintance,  without  a  tried  friend  to  whom  he 
could  unbosom  his  anxieties — without  confidence  in  those  around 
him,  and  others  without  confidence  towards  him.  Mr.  Slater's 
own  experience  taught  him  ever  to  treat  the  numerous  strangers 
who  flocked  to  him  for  advice,  assistance,  or  employment,  with 
marked  attention,  without  partiality,  and  without  hypocrisy. 

Early  in  1793,  Almy,  Brown,  and  Slater  built  a  small  factory 
in  Pawtucket,  which  is  now  called  the  "  Old  Mill,"  where  they 
slowly  added  to  their  machinery  as  the  sales  of  yarn  increased. 
The  disposal  of  the  yarn  in  market  was  at  first  found  as  difficult 
as  the  first  construction  of  the  machinery  for  its  manufacture. 
Such  are  the  prejudices  of  mankind,  and  their  unwillingness  to 
break  over  long-established  habits  and  opinions,  that,  superior  as 
was  this  yarn  in  material,  and  durability  to  that  imported,  people 
would  hardly  be  convinced,  even  by  actual  experiment,  that  it  was 
possible  to  make  good  cotton  yarn  at  home.  That  made  by  these 
pioneers  in  American  manufacture  would  sometimes  be  on  hand 
in  large  quantities,  or  could  be  got  rid  of  only  as  "  truck,"  whilst 
the  English  made  yarn  was  eagerly  sought  for  at  a  much  higher 
price  in  money.  In  a  note  found  among  Mr.  Slater's  papers,  we 
are  informed  that  when  the  first  seventy-two  spindles  and  prepara- 
tion had  been  at  work  only  twenty  months,  "  they  had  several 
thousand  pounds  of  yarn  on  hand,  notwithstanding  every  exertion 
was  used  to  weave  it  up  and  sell  it."  The  same  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  the  sale  of  yarn  at  intervals,  until  the  introduction 
of  the  power  loom.  Slow  as  was  the  advancement  of  spinning 
until  twenty  years  after  its  first  establishment,  it  never  attained 
the  advantage  of  a  quick  remunerating  staple  business  until  the 
loom  was  placed  beside  the  spinning  frame,  and  propelled  by  the 
same  power.  The  power  loom,  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago,  did 
for  the  spinning  frame  what  has  since  been  done  for  the  loom  by 
the  printery, — it  furnished  an  immediate  and  ready  consumption, 
and  a  market  ready  for  its  products.* 

*  As  an  evidence  of  the  vast  improvements  ih:  the  manufacture  and  culture 
of  cotton,  it  is  stated,  that  at  the  time  of  Slater's  arrival  in  this  country,  good 
cotton  cloth  was  fifty  cents  a  yard,,  and  never  less  thaiiforty* 


SAMUEL  SLATER.  95 

It  was  only  in  1799  that  the  sales  of  yarn  became  sufficiently 
promising  to  induce  another  company  to  set  up  the  second  cotton 
mill  establishment  in  Rhode  Island,  and  Messrs.  Almy,  Brown, 
and  Slater  were  encouraged  to  make  very  considerable  additions 
to  the  machinery  in  the  "  Old  Mill."  Their  subsequent  business, 
up  to  the  year  1806,  turned  their  attention  to  a  more  extended 
investment  in  spinning,  and  from  thenceforth  it  was  continually  on 
the  increase. 

Mr.  Slater  was  a  philanthropist  in  its  most  important  sense, 
and  ever  manifested  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of  those  under  his 
charge.  No  sooner  did  he  find  his  business  collected  young 
people  and  children  who  were  destitute  of  the  means  of  instruc- 
tion, than  he  commenced  establishing  a  Sunday  school  in  his  own 
house,  sometimes  instructing  his  scholars  himself,  but  generally 
hiring  a  person  to  perform  that  duty.  This  was  the  first  Sunday 
school  in  the  United  States ;  and  what  appears  to  us  not  a  little 
singular,  was  regarded  by  some  as  an  unhallowed  innovation  ; — 
one  young  man,  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  was  at  first  deterred  from 
becoming  a  teacher^  because  his  father  considered  it  a  profanation 
of  the  Sabbath ! 

The  impulse  given  to  industry  and  production  by  the  cotton 
manufacture  has  not  been  confined  to  one  branch  alone,  but  has 
been  felt  in  every  kind  of  employment  useful  to  the  community.  We 
need  not  in  this  place  enlarge  upon  the  close  affinity  and  mutual  de- 
pendence of  these  various  employments ;  they  are  obvious  to  every 
mind  which  has  acquired  the  habit  of  tracing  results  to  their  causes 
in  the  endless  relations  of  society.  As  a  general  fact,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly true,  that  the  advancement  of  our  country  in  the  manu- 
factures of  wool  and  iron,,  has  been  greatly  accelerated  by  the  cotton 
manufacture ;  and  that  those  branches  of  industry  have  always 
been  deeply  affected  by  the  temporary  reverses  which  this  branch 
has  experienced. 

Mr.  Slater  was  for  many  years,  until  the  time  of  his  death,  con- 
cerned in  woollen  and  iron,  as  well  as  cotton  manufactories,  and  his 
observation  and  sagacity  never  suffered  him  to  question  the  iden- 
tity of  their  interests.  There  was  another  point  in  which  his 
views  and  sentiments,  though  decried  by  some  as  too  liberal  and 
disinterested  in  any  matter  of  business,  were  truly  wise  and  saga- 
cious, and  fully  concurred  in  by  his  partners.  He  always  main- 
tained that  legislative  protection  would  be  as  beneficial  to  himself 
as  to  others ;  to  those  already  established  in  business  and  possess- 
ing an  ample  capital,  as  those  just  commencing,  with  little  or  no 
means.  This  opinion,  notwithstanding  all  the  huckstering  calculations 
and  short  sighted  views  of  would-be  monopolists,  was  certainly  the 


96  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

best  for  himself.  Monopoly  in  this  country,  by  any  men,  or  set  of 
men,  subject  to  our  laws,  is  unattainable,  either  by  legislation  or 
combination.  It  is,  or  ought  to  be,  excluded  from  all  the  calcula- 
tions of  a  sober  and  practical  business  mind.  There  was,  there- 
fore, nothing  in  their  preoccupation  of  the  cotton  business  that  gave 
them  an  advantage  over  other  domestic  manufacturers,  except  their 
skill  and  capital.  Of  these  advantages  legislation  could  or  would 
not  deprive  them ;  and  with  them  on  their  side,  they  could  extend 
their  investments  as  fast,  certainly  with  as  much  pro-fit,  as  those 
who  were  without,  or  with  capital  only.  In  petitions  and  other 
means  adopted  by  the  manufacturing  districts  of  our  country,  to 
obtain  this  protection,  Mr.  Slater  was  ever  a  prominent  and  efficient 
person. 

.  Such  are  the  outlines  of  the  business  life  of  a  man,  whose  skill 
and  knowledge  of  detail  was  unrivalled,  in  a  business  which,  up  to 
the  time  of  his  appearance,  was  unknown  in  this  country, — whose 
commercial  views  were  of  the  most  liberal  and  enlightened  char- 
acter,— whose  energy,  perseverance,  and  untiring  diligence,  aided 
in  his  early  efforts  by  the  money  and  countenance  of  those  who 
justly  appreciated  his  merits,  and  confidently  anticipated  his  emi- 
nence, have  triumphed  over  obstacles  which  would  have  discouraged 
others ;  have  given  a  new  direction  to  the  industry  of  his  adopted 
country,  and  opened  a  new  and  boundless  field  to  its  enterprise. 
It  has  rarely  fallen  to  the  lot  of  any  single  individual  to  be  made 
an  instrument,  under  Providence,  of  so  much  and  such  widely  dif- 
fused benefit  to  his  fellow  men,  as  this  man  has  conferred  upon 
them,  without  any  pretension  to  high-wrought  philanthropy  in  the 
ordinary,  unostentatious  pursuit  of  that  profession  to  which  he  had 
been  educated. 

Yet,  unpretending  as  he  was,  and  noiseless  in  that  sublimated 
charity  which  is  now  so  fashionable  and  predominant,  his  sympathy 
for  the  distressed,  and  his  kindness  and  good-will  for  all,  were  ever 
warm,  active,  practical  sentiments ;  based  upon  steadfast  principles, 
and  aiming  at  the  greatest  attainable  measure  of  good.  In  the 
relief  of  immediate  and  pressing  want,  he  was  prompt  and  liberal ;  in 
the  measures  which  he  adopted  for  its  prevention  in  future,  he 
evinced  paternal  feeling  and  judicious  forecast.  Employment  and 
liberal  pay  to  the  able  bodied  promoted  regularity  and  cheerfulness 
in  the  house,  and  drove  the  wolf  from  its  door.  "  Direct  charity," 
he  has  been  heard  to  say,  "  places  its  recipient  under  a  sense  of 
obligation  which  trenches  upon  that  independent  spirit  that  all 
should  maintain.  It  breaks  his  pride,  and  he  soon  learns  to  beg 
and  eat  the  bread  of  idleness  without  a  blush.  But  employ  and 
pay  him,  and  he  receives  and  enjoys  with  an  honest  pride,  that 


SAMUEL  SLATER.  97 

which  he  knows  he  has  earned,  and  could  have  received  for  the 
same  amount  of  labor  from  any  other  employer."  It  would  be 
well  for  all  communities  if  such  views  on  the  subject  of  pauperism, 
were  generally  adopted  and  carried  into  practice. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  of  one  who  has  done  so  much  busi- 
ness, and  with  so  great  success,  that  his  business  habits  and 
morals  were  of  the  highest  character.  The  punctual  performance 
of  every  engagement,  in  its  true  spirit  and  meaning,  was,  with 
him,  a  point  of  honor,  from  which  no  consideration  of  temporary  or 
prospective  advantage  would  induce  him  to  depart,- — from,  which 
no  sacrifice  of  money  or  feeling  was  sufficient  to  deter  him. 
There  was  a  method  and  arrangement  in  his  transactions,  by  which 
every  thing  was  duly  and  at  the  proper  time  attended  to.  Nothing 
was  hurried  from  its  proper  place,  nothing  postponed  beyond  its 
proper  time.  It  was  thus  that  transactions,  the  most  varied,  intri- 
cate, and  extensive,  deeply  affecting  the  interests  of  three  adjoining 
states,  and  extending  their  influence  to  thousands  of  individuals, 
proceeded  from  their  first  inception  to  their  final  consummation, 
with  an  order,  a  regularity  and  certainty,  truly  admirable  and  in- 
structive. The  master's  mind  was  equally  present  and  apparent  in 
every  thing,  from  the  imposing  mass  of  the  total  to  the  most  minute 
particular  of  its  component  parts. 

Mr.  Slater's  private  and  domestic  character  was  without  a  blem- 
ish. He  was  twice  married,  and  had  four  children,  all  sons,  by 
his  first  wife,  and  at  his  death  left  a  pious  and  amiable  widow, 
formerly  Mrs.  Parkinson,  of  Philadelphia,  with  an  ample  dowry, 
to  receive  from  his  family  that  protection  and  affection  which  her 
motherly  attention  to  them  has  so  well  deserved.  He  was  a  sin- 
cere and  practical  Christian,  and  died,  April  21st,  1835,  in  the 
cheering  hopes  and  consolations  which  Christianity  alone  imparts. 

We  conclude  this  memoir  with  the  following  tribute  to  his  mem- 
ory, which  is  in  substance  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Tristam  Burgess,  in 
his  address  before  the  Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Society  : — "  Forty 
years  ago  there  was  not  a  spindle  wrought  by  water  on  this  side 
the  Atlantic.  Since  then,  how  immense  the  capital  by  which  spin- 
ning and  weaving  machinery  are  moved  !  How  many,  how  great, 
how  various,  the  improvements  !  The  farmers  of  Flanders  erected 
a  statue  in  honor  of  him  who  introduced  into  their  country  the 
culture  of  the  potato.  What  shall  the  people  of  New  England 
do  for  him  who  first  brought  us  the  knowledge  of  manufacturing 
cloth,  by  machinery  moved  by  water  ?  In  England,  he  would  in 
life  be  ornamented  with  a  peerage,  in  death,  lamented  by  a  monu- 
ment in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  name  of  Slater  will  be  remem- 
bered as  one  of  our  greatest  public  benefactors.  Let  not  the  rich, 


98  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

in  his  adopted  country,  envy  the  products  of  his  labor — his  exten- 
sive opulence — his  fair  and  elevated  character.  Let  the  poor  rise 
up  and  call  him  blessed ;  for  he  has  introduced  a  species  of  industry 
into  our  country,  which  furnishes  them  with  labor,  food,  clothing, 
and  habitation." 


ELI  WHITNEY. 


ELI  WHITNEY, 

INVENTOR  OF  THE  COTTON  GIN. 


Birth. — Anecdotes  of  his  youth. — Manufactures  nails. — Teaches  school. — By  his 
own  exertions  prepares  for  college. — Anecdotes  of  his  college  life. — Graduates. 
— Goes  to  Georgia  as  a  Teacher. — Disappointment. — Becomes  an  inmate  in  the 
family  of  Gen.  Greene. — Ingenuity. — Low  state  of  the  cotton  culture. — An  in- 
troduction.— Old  method  of  separating  the  cotton  from  the  seed. — Invents  the 
cotton  gin. — Forms  a  co-partnership  with  Mr.  Phineas  Miller  to  manufacture 
gins. — Note,  Description. — The  first  machine  stolen. — Commencement  of  en- 
croachments.— Disastrous  fire. — A  trial. — Its  unfortunate  issue. — Gloomy  pros- 
pects.— South  Carolina  purchases  the  patent  right  for  that  state. — Enters  into 
a  similar  engagement  with  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee. — South  Carolina 
and  Tennessee  annul  their  contracts. — Increasing  encroachments. — South 
Carolina  Legislature,  of  1804,  rescind  the  act  of  annulment. — Death  of  Mr. 
Miller. — Celebrated  decision  of  Judge  Johnson. — Lawsuits. — Commences 
manufacturing  arms  for  government. — Difficulties  to  be  surmounted. — De- 
scription of  the  system. — Rejection  of  the  memorial  to  congress  for  a  renewal 
of  the  patent  right  on  the  cotton  gin. — Marriage. — Death. — A  comparison. — 
Character. 

To  the  efforts  of  Whitney,  our  country  is  indebted  for  the  value 
of  her  great  staple.  While  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  has 
been  the  chief  source  of  the  prosperity  of  the  southern  planter,  the 
northern  manufacturer  comes  in  for  a  large  share  of  the  benefit 
derived  from  the  most  important  offspring  of  American  ingenuity. 

Eli  Whitney*  was  born  in  Westborough,  Worcester  county, 
Massachusetts,  December  8th,  1765.  His  parents  belonged  to 
that  respectable  class  in  society,  who,  by  the  labors  of  husbandry, 
manage,  by  uniform  industry,  to  provide  well  for  a  rising  family, — 
a  class  from  whom  have  arisen  most  of  those  who,  in  New  Eng- 
land, have  attained  to  high  eminence  and  usefulness. 

The  following  incident,  though  trivial  in  itself,  will  serve  to  show 
at  how  early  a  period  certain  qualities,  of  strong  feeling  tempered 
by  that  discretion  for  which  Mr.  Whitney  afterwards  became  dis- 
tinguished, began  to  display  themselves.  When  he  was  six  or 
seven  years  old,  he  had  overheard  the  kitchen  maid,  in  a  fit  of 
passion,  calling  his  mother,  who  was  in  a  delicate  state  of  health,  hard 
names,  at  which  he  expressed  great  displeasure  to  his  sister.  "  She 

*  Condensed  from  the  able  memoir  by  Professor  Olmsted,  published  in  the 
twenty-first  volume  of  Silliman's  Journal. 

8 


102  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

thought,"  said  he,  "  that  I  was  not  big  enough  to  know  any  thing ; 
but  I  can  tell  her,  I  am  too  big  to  hear  her  talk  so  about  my  mother. 
I  think  she  ought  to  have  a  flogging,  and  if  I  knew  how  to  bring  it 
about,  she  should  have  one."  His  sister  advised  him  to  tell  their 
father.  "  No,"  he  replied,  "  that  will  not  do  ;  it  will  hurt  his  feelings 
and  mother's  too ;  and  besides,  its  likely  the  girl  will  say  she  never 
said  so,  and  that  would  make  a  quarrel.  It  is  best  to  say  nothing 
about  it." 

Indications  of  his  mechanical  genius  were  likewise  developed  at 
a  very  early  age.  Of  his  early  passion  for  such  employments,  his 
sister  gives  the  following  account.  "  Our  father  had  a  workshop, 
and  sometimes  made  wheels,  of  different  kinds,  and  chairs.  He 
had  a  variety  of  tools,  and  a  lathe  for  turning  chair  posts.  This 
gave  my  brother  an  opportunity  of  learning  the  use  of  tools  when 
very  young.  He  lost  no  time,  but  as  soon  as  he  could  handle 
tools  he  was  always  making  something  in  the  shop,  and  seemed 
not  to  like  working  on  the  farm.  On  a  time,  after  the  death  f p 
our  mother,  when  our  father  had  been  absent  from  home  two  or 
three  days,  on  his  return,  he  inquired  of  the  housekeeper,  what  the 
boys  had  been  doing.  She  told  him  what  B.  and  J.  had  been 
about.  *But  what  has  EH  been  doing?'  said  he.  She  replied, 
he  had  been  making  a  fiddle.  *  Ah !  (added  he  despondingly)  / 
fear  Eli  will  have  to  lake  his  portion  in  fiddles.1  He  was  at  this 
time  about  twelve  years  old.  His  sister  adds,  that  this  fiddle  was 
finished  throughout,  like  a  common  violin,  and  made  tolerable 
good  music.  It  was  examined  by  many  persons,  and  all  pronounced 
it  to  be  a  remarkable  piece  of  work  for  such  a  boy  to  perform. 
From  this  time  he  was  employed  to  repair  violins,  and  had  many 
nice  jobs,  which  were  always  executed  to  the  entire  satisfaction,  and 
often  to  the  astonishment  of  his  customers.  His  father's  watch  be- 
ing  the  greatest  piece  of  mechanism  that  had  yet  presented  itself  to 
his  observation,  he  was  extremely  desirous  of  examining  its  interior 
construction,  but  was  not  permitted  to  do  so.  One  Sunday  morn- 
ing, observing  that  his  father  was  going  to  meeting,  and  would 
leave  at  home  the  wonderful  little  machine,  he  immediately  feigned 
illness  as  an  apology  for  not  going  to  church.  As  soon  as  the 
family  were  out  of  sight,  he  flew  to  the  room  where  the  watch 
hung,  and  taking  it  down,  he  was  so  delighted  with  its  motions, 
that  he  took  it  to  pieces  before  he  thought  of  the  consequences  of 
his  rash  deed  ;  for  his  father  was  a  stern  parent,  and  punishment 
would  have  been  the  reward  of  his  idle  curiosity,  had  the  mischief 
been  detected.  He,  however,  put  the  work  all  so  neatly  together, 
that  his  father  never  discovered  his  audacity  until  he  himself  told 
him,  many  years  afterwards." 


ELI  WHITNEY.  105 

Whitney  lost  his  mother  at  an  early  age,  and  when  he  was  thir- 
teen years  old,  his  father  married  a  second  time.  His  step-mo- 
ther, among  her  articles  of  furniture,  had  a  htindsome  set  of  table 
knives,  that  she  valued  very  highly ;  which  our  young  mechanic 
observing,  said  to  her,  "  I  could  make  as  good  ones  if  I  had 
tools,  and  I  could  make  the  necessary  tools  if  I  had  a  few 
common  tools  to  make  them  with."  His  step-mother  thought 
he  was  deriding  her,  and  was  much  displeased ;  but  it  so  hap- 
pened, not  long  afterwards,  that  one  of  the  knives  got  broken,  and 
he  made  one  exactly  like  it  in  every  respect,  except  the  stamp  on 
the  blade.  This  he  would  likewise  have  executed,  had  not  the 
tools  required  been  too  expensive  for  his  slender  resources. 

When  Whitney  was  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  suggested 
to  his  father  an  enterprise,  which  was  an  earnest  of  the  similar 
undertakings  in  which  he  engaged  on  a  far  greater  scale  in  later 
life.  This  being  the  time  of  the  revolutionary  war,  nails  were  in 
great  demand,  and  bore  a  high  price.  At  that  period,  nails  were 
made  chiefly  by  hand,  with  little  aid  from  machinery.  Young 
Whitney  proposed  to  his  father  to  procure  him  a  few  tools,  and  to 
permit  him  to  set  up  the  manufacture.  His  father  consented,  and 
he  went  steadily  to  work,  and  suffered  nothing  to  divert  him  from 
his  task  until  his  day's  work  was  completed.  By  extraordinary 
diligence,  he  gained  time  to  make  tools  for  his  own  use,  and  to  put 
in  knife  blades,  and  to  perform  many  other  curious  little  jobs, 
which  exceeded  the  skill  of  the  country  artisans.  At  this  labori- 
ous occupation  the  enterprising  boy  wrought  alone,  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  with  much  profit  to  his  father,  for  two  winters,  pursuing 
the  ordinary  labors  of  the  farm  during  the  summers.  At  this  time 
he  devised  a  plan  for  enlarging  his  business  and  increasing  his 
profits.  He  whispered  his  scheme  to  his  sister,  with  strong  in- 
junctions of  secrecy  ;  and  requesting  leave  of  his  father  to  go  to  a 
neighboring  town,  without  specifying  his  object,  he  set  out  on  horse- 
back in  quest  of  a  fellow  laborer.  Not  finding  one  so  easily  as  he 
had  anticipated,  he  proceeded  from  town  to  town,  with  a  persever- 
ance which  was  always  a  strong  trait  of  his  character,  until  at  the 
distance  of  forty  miles  from  home,  he  found  such  a  workman  as  he 
desired.  He  also  made  his  journey  subservient  to  his  improvement 
in  mechanical  skill,  for  he  called  at  every  workshop  on  his  way, 
and  gleaned  all  the  information  he  could  respecting  the  mechanic 
arts. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  the  business  of  making  nails  was  no 
longer  profitable ;  but  a  fashion  prevailing  among  the  ladies  of 
fastening  on  their  bonnets  with  long  pins,  he  contrived  to  make 
those  with  such  skill  and  dexterity,  that  he  nearly  monopolized  the 


106  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

business,  although  he  devoted  to  it  only  such  seasons  of  leisure  as 
he  could  redeem  from  the  occupations  of  the  farm,  to  which  he 
now  principally  befook  himself.  He  added  to  this  article  the 
manufacture  of  walking  canes,  which  he  made  with  peculiar  neat- 
ness. 

We  are  informed  that  he  manifested  an  aptness  for  mathemati- 
cal calculations,  and  that  when  quite  young  was  considered  not 
only  remarkable  for  his  ingenuity,  but  for  general  information. 

From  the  age  of  nineteen,  young  Whitney  conceived  the  idea 
of  obtaining  a  liberal  education ;  and  partly  by  the  avails  of  his 
mechanical  industry,  and  partly  by  teaching  a  village  school,  was 
enabled  so  far  to  surmount  the  difficulties  thrown  in  his  way,  as  to 
prepare  himself  for  the  freshman  class  in  Yale  college,  which  he 
entered  in  1789.  While  a  schoolmaster,  the  mechanic  would 
often  usurp  the  place  of  the  teacher ;  and  the  mind,  too  aspiring 
for  such  a  sphere,  was  wandering  off  in  pursuit  of  "perpetiuji  mo- 
tion." At  college  his  mechanical  propensity  frequently  showed 
itself.  He  successfully  undertook  on  one  occasion  the  repairing 
of  some  of  the  philosophical  apparatus.  On  another,  a  carpenter 
being  at  work  at  the  house  where  Whitney  boarded,  he  solicited 
the  permission  to  use  his  tools.  The  carpenter  being  unwilling  to 
trust  him,  only  granted  the  request  on  the  gentleman  of  the  house 
promising  to  be  responsible  for  the  damages ;  but  no  sooner  had 
Whitney  commenced  operations,  than  the  man,  astonished,  exclaim. 
ed,  "  There  was  one  good  mechanic  spoiled  when  you  went  to 
college."  Soon  after  taking  his  degree  in  the  autumn  of  1792,  Mr. 
Whitney  engaged  with  a  Mr.  B.,  of  Georgia,  to  reside  in  his  family 
as  a  private  teacher.  On  his  arrival  he  was  informed  that  Mr.  B. 
had  employed  another  person,  leaving  him  without  resources  or 
friends,  save  in  the  family  of  Gen.  Greene,  of  Mulberry  Grove,  near 
Savannah,  with  whom  he  had  formed  an  accidental  acquaintance. 
These  benevolent  people,  however,  deeply  interested  themselves  in 
his  case,  and  hospitably  offered  him  the  privilege  of  making  his 
home  at  their  house,  where  he  commenced  the  study  of  law. 

While  residing  there,  Mrs.  Greene  was  employed  in  embroidery, 
which  is  worked  on  a  kind  of  frame,  called  a  tambour.  She  com- 
plained of  its  bad  construction,  and  observed  it  tore  the  delicate 
threads  of  her  work.  Mr.  Whitney,  eager  for  an  opportunity  to 
oblige  his  hostess,  set  himself  to  work  and  speedily  produced  a 
tambour  frame  on  a  plan  entirely  new,  with  which  he  presented 
her.  Mrs.  Greene  and  her  family  were  much  delighted  with  it, 
and  considered  it  a  wonderful  piece  of  ingenuity. 

Not  long  after  the  family  were  visited  by  a  party  of  gentlemen, 
consisting  principally  of  officers  who  had  served  under  the  general, 


ELI  WHITNEY.  107 

in  the  revolutionary  army.  The  conversation  turning  upon  the 
state  of  agriculture,  it  was  regretted  that  there  was  no  means  of 
cleaning  the  seed  from  the  green  seed  cotton,  which  might  other, 
wise  be  profitably  raised  on  lands  unsuitable  for  rice.  But,  until 
ingenuity  could  devise  some  machine  which  would  grealy  facilitate 
the  process  of  cleaning,  it  was  vain  to  think  of  raising  cotton  for 
market.  Separating  one  pound  of  the  clean  staple  from  the  seed 
was  a  day's  work  for  a  woman  ;  but  the  time  usually  devoted  to  the 
picking  of  the  cotton  was  the  evening,  after  the  labor  of  the  field 
was  over.  Then  the  slaves,  men,  women,  and  children,  were  col- 
lected in  circles  with  one,  whose  duty  it  was  to  rouse  the  dozing 
and  quicken  the  indolent.  While  the  company  were  engaged  in 
this  conversation,  '*  Gentlemen,"  said  Mrs.  Greene,  *«  apply  to  my 
young  friend,  Mr.  Whitney,  he  can  make  any  thing,"  at  the  same 
time  showing  them  the  tambour  frame  and  several  other  articles 
which  he  had  made.  She  introduced  the  gentlemen  to  Whitney 
himself,  extolling  his  genius,  and  commending  him  to  their  notice 
and  friendship.  He  modestly  disclaimed  all  pretensions  to  me- 
chanical  genius,  and  on  their  naming  the  object,  replied  that  he 
had  never  seen  cotton  seed  in  his  life.  Mrs.  G.  said  to  one  of  the 
gentlemen,  "  I  have  accomplished  my  aim,  Mr.  Whitney  is  a  very 
deserving  young  man,  and  to  bring  him  into  notice  was  my  object. 
The  interest  which  our  friends  now  feel  for  him,  will*  I  hope,  lead  to 
his  getting  some  employment  to  enable  him  to  prosecute  the  study 
of  the  law." 

But  no  one  foresaw  the  change  that  this  interview  was  to  make 
in  the  plan  of  his  life.  He  immediately  began  upon  the  task  of  in. 
venting  and  constructing  that  machine,  on  which  his  future  fame 
depended.  Mr.  Miller,  to  whom  he  communicated  his  design, 
warmly  encouraged  him  in  it,  and  gave  him  a  room  in  his  house, 
wherein  to  carry  on  his  operations.  Here  he  set  himself  to  work, 
with  the  disadvantage  of  being  obliged  to  manufacture  his  tools  and 
draw  his  own  wire,  an  article  then  not  to  be  found  in  Savannah. 
Mr.  Phineas  Miller  and  Mrs.  Greene  were  the  only  persons  who 
knew  any  thing  of  his  occupation.  The  many  hours  he  spent  in  his 
mysterious  pursuits,  afforded  matter  of  great  curiosity,  and  often  of 
raillery,  to  the  younger  members  of  the  family.  Near  the  close  of 
the  winter,  the  machine  was  so  nearly  completed  as  to  leave  no 
doubt  of  his  success. 

The  individual  who  contributed  most  to  incite  him  to  persevere 
in  the  undertaking,  was  Mr.  Miller,  who  was  a  native  of  Connecti- 
cut, and  a  graduate  of  Yale  college.  Like  Mr.  Whitney,  soon 
after  he  had  completed  his  education,  he  came  to  Georgia  as  a 
private  teacher,  in  the  family  of  Gen.  Greene,  and  after  the  decease 

8* 


108 


AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 


of  the  general,  he  became  the  husband  of  Mrs.  Greene.  He  had 
qualified  himself  for  the  profession  of  law,  and  was  a  gentleman  of 
cultivated  mind  and  superior  talents  ;  but  he  was  of  an  ardent  tem- 
perament, and  therefore  well  fitted  to  enter  with  zeal  into  the  views 
which  the  genius  of  his  friend  had  laid  open  to  him.  He  had  also 
considerable  funds  at  command,  and  proposed  to  Mr.  Whitney  to 
become  the  joint  adventurer,  and  to  be  at  the  whole  expense  of  ma. 
taring  the  invention*  until  it  should  be  patented.  If  the  machine 


ft  ffff  f  f  f  ffff  y  ^# 


PLAN  OF  THE  SAW  AND  BRUSH  CYLINDERS. 

*  Description  of  Whitney's  Cotton  Gin. — The  principal  parts  are  two  cylinders 
of  different  diameters,  (see  F  H,  section  and  plan,)  mounted  in  a  strong  wooden 
frame,  A,  which  are  turned  by  means  either  of  a  handle  or  a  pulley  and  belt,  act- 
ing upon  the  axis  of  a  fly  wheel,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  shaft,  opposite  to  that 
seen  in  the  section.  Its  endless  band  turns  a  large  pulley  on  the  end  D  of  the  saw 
cylinder  F,  and  a  smaller  pulley  on  the  end  E  of  the  brush  cylinder  H,  (see  plan,)  so 
as  to  make  the  latter  revolve  with  the  greater  rapidity.  Upon  the  wooden  cylin- 
der F,  ten  inches  in  diameter,  are  mounted,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  apart,  fifty, 
sixty,  or  even  eighty,  circular  saws,  edged  as  at  I,  (see  section,)  of  one  foot 
diameter,  which  fit  very  exactly  into  grooves  cut  one  inch  deep  into  the  cylin- 
der. Each  saw  consists  of  two  segments  of  a  circle,  and  is  preferably  made 
of  hammered  (not  rolled)  sheet  iron ;  the  teeth  must  be  kept  very  sharp. 
Opposite  to  the  interstices  of  the  saws  are  flat  bars  of  iron,  which  form  a 
parallel  grid  of  such  a  curvature,  that  the  shoulder  of  the  slanting  saw  tooth 
passes  first,  and  then  the  point.  By  this  means,  when  a  tooth  gets  bent 
by  the  seeds,  it  resets  itself  by  rubbing  against  the  grid  bars,  instead  of  be- 
ing torn  off,  as  would  happen  did  the  apex  of  the  saw  tooth  enter  first.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  saws  revolve  in  the  middle  of  their  respective  grid  inter- 
vals, for  if  they  rubbed  against  the  bars  they  would  tear  the  cotton  filaments  to 
pieces.  The  hollow  cylinder  H,  is  mounted  with  the  brushes  c  c  c,  the  tips  of 
whose  bristles  ought  to  touch  the  saw  teeth,  as  at  d,  d,  (see  plan,)  and  thus 
sweep  off  the  adhering  cotton  wool.  The  cylinder  H  revolves  in  an  opposite 
direction  to  the  cylinder  F,  as  is  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  the  section. 

The  seed  cotton,  as  picked  from  the  pods,  is  thrown  into  the  hopper  L,  (see 


COTTON    GIN, 


ELI  WHITNEY.  HI 

should  succeed  in  its  intended  operation,  the  parties  agreed,  under 
legal  formalities,  "  that  the  profits  and  advantages  arising  there- 
from, as  well  as  all  privileges  and  emoluments  to  be  derived  from 
patenting,  making,  vending,  and  working  the  same,  should  be  mu- 
tually and  equally  shared  between  them."  This  instrument  bears 
date  May  27,  1793,  and  immediately  afterwards  they  commenced 
business  under  the  firm  of  Miller  and  Whitney. 

An  invention  so  important  to  the  agricultural  interests  (and,  as 
it  has  proved,  to  every  department  of  human  industry,)  could  not 
long  remain  a  secret.  The  knowledge  of  it  soon  spread  through 
the  state,  and  so  great  was  the  excitement  on  the  subject,  that  mul- 
titudes of  persons  came  from  all  quarters  of  the  state  to  see  the 
machine ;  but  it  was  not  deemed  safe  to  gratify  their  curiosity  until 
the  patent  right  should  be  secured.  But  so  determined  were  some 
of  the  populace  to  possess  this  treasure,  that  neither  law  nor  justice 
could  restrain  them  ;  they  broke  open  the  building  by  night,  and 
carried  off  the  machine.  In  this  way  the  public  became  possessed 
of  the  invention  ;  and  before  Mr.  Whitney  could  complete  his  mo- 
del and  secure  his  patent,  a  number  of  machines  were  in  successful 
operation,  constructed  with  some  slight  deviation  from  the  original, 
with  the  hope  of  evading  the  penalty  for  violating  the  patent  right. 

As  soon  as  the  copartnership  of  Miller  and  Whitney  was  formed, 
Mr.  Whitney  repaired  to  Connecticut,  where,  as  far  as  possible,  he 
was  to  perfect  the  machine,  obtain  a  patent,  and  manufacture  and 
ship  for  Georgia,  such  a  number  of  machines  as  would  supply  the 
demand. 


section ;)  the  disc  saws,  I,  in  turning  round,  encounter  the  cotton  filaments  rest- 
ing against  the  grid,  catch  them  with  their  sharp  teeth,  and  drag  them  inwards 
and  upwards,  while  the  striped  seeds,  too  large  to  pass  between  the  bars,  fall 
through  the  bottom  N  of  the  hopper,  upon  the  inclined  board  M.  The  size  of  the 
aperture  N,  is  regulated  at  pleasure  by  an  adjusting  screw  to  suit  the  size  of  the 
particular  species  of  seeds.  The  saw  teeth,  filled  with  cotton  wool,  after  return- 
ing through  the  grid,  meet  the  brushes  c  c  c  of  the  cylinder  H,  and  deliver  it  up 
to  them ;  the  cotton  is  thereafter  whisked  down  upon  the  sloping  table  O,  and 
thence  falls  into  the  receptacle  P.  A  cover  Q  (see  section)  encloses  both  the 
cylinders  and  the  hopper ;  this  cover  is  turned  up  around  the  hinges  as  shown  in 
the  section,  in  order  to  introduce  the  charge  of  seed  cotton  into  the  machine,  and 
is  then  let  down  before  setting  the  wheels  in  gear  with  the  driving  power.  The 
axis  e  e,ff,  of  the  cylinders  (see  plan)  should  be  well  fitted  into  their  plumrner 
box  bearings,  so  as  to  prevent  any  lateral  swagging,  which  would  greatly  injure 
their  operation.  The  raised  position  of  the  cover  is  obvious  in  the  section,  the 
hinge  being  placed  at  B.  By  means  of  the  cotton  gin,  one  man  with  the  aid 
of  a  water  wheel  possessing  a  two  horse  power,  can  cleanse  thousand  pounds  of 
seed  cotton  in  a  day,  eighty  saws  being  mounted  upon  his  machine.  The  clean- 
ed wool  forms  generally  one  fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  seed  cotton,  and  some- 
times so  much  as  twenty-seven  per  cent.  The  ginners  are  usually  a  distinct 
body  from  the  planters,  and  they  receive  for  their  work  one-eighth,  or  one-tenth  of 
the  nett  weight  of  the  cleaned  cotton,  under  an  obligation  to  supply  all  the  seed 
required  by  the  planter. 


112  AMERICAN  MECHANICS, 

Within  three  days  after  the  conclusion  of  the  copartnership,  Mr. 
Whitney  having  set  out  for  the  north,  Mr.  Miller  commenced  his 
long  correspondence  relative  to  the  cotton  gin,  The  first  letter 
announces  that  encroachments  upon  their  rights  had  already  com- 
menccd.  "  It  will  be  necessary,"  says  Mr.  Miller,  "  to  have  a  consi- 
derable number  of  gins  made,  to  be  in  readiness  to  send  out  as  soon  as 
the  patent  is  obtained,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  absolute  demands,  and 
make  people's  heads  easy  on  the  subject ;  for  I  am  informed  of  two 
other  claimants  for  the  honor  of  the  invention  of  cotton  gins,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  ive  knew  before." 

At  the  close  of  this  year  (1793)  Mr.  Whitney  was  to  return  to 
Georgia  with  his  cotton  gins,  where  his  partner  had  made  arrange, 
ments  for  commencing  business  immediately  after  his  arrival.  The 
importunity  of  Mr.  Miller's  letters,  written  during  the  preceding 
period,  urging  him  to  come  on,  evinces  how  eager  the  Georgia 
planters  were  to  enter  the  new  field  of  enterprise  which  the  genius 
of  Whitney  had  laid  open  to  them.  Nor  did  they  at  first  in  general 
contemplate  availing  themselves  of  the  invention  unlawfully.  But 
the  minds  of  the  more  honorable  class  of  planters  were  afterwards, 
deluded  by  various  artifices,  set  on  foot  by  designing  men,  with  the 
view  of  robbing  Mr.  Whitney  of  his  just  rights. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  experienced  by  men  of  enterprise, 
at  this  period,  was  the  extreme  scarcity  of  money,  which  embar- 
rassed them  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  tq 
construct  machines  fast  enough. 

In  April  he  returned  to  Georgia ;  during  his  absence  he  was 
strongly  importuned  to  return  by  his  partner,  on  account  of  the 
infatuated  eagerness  of  the  Georgia  planters  to  obtain  the  advan- 
tages of  his  machine.  Large  crops  of  cotton  were  planted,  the 
profits  of  which  were  to  depend,  of  course,  entirely  on  the  sue, 
cess  and  employment  of  the  gin. 

The  roller  gin  was  at  first  the  most  formidable  competitor  with 
Whitney's  machine.  It  extricated  the  seed  by  means  of  rollers, 
crushing  them  between  revolving  cylinders,  instead  of  disengaging 
them  by  means  of  teeth.  The  fragments  of  seeds  which  remained 
in  the  cotton  rendered  its  execution  much  inferior  in  this  respect 
to  Whitney's  gin,  and  it  was  also  much  slower  in  its  operation. 
Great  efforts  were  made,  however,  to  create  an  impression  in 
favor  of  its  superiority  in  other  respects. 

But  a  still  more  formidable  rival  appeared  early  in  the  year  1795, 
under  the  name  of  the  saw  gin.  It  was  Whitney's  gin,  except 
that  the  teeth  were  cut  in  circular  rims  of  iron,  instead  of  being 
made  of  wires,  as  was  the  case  in  the  earlier  forms  of  the  patent 
gin.  The  idea  of  such  teeth  had  early  occurred  to  Mr.  Whitney, 


ELI   WHITNEY.  113 

as  he  afterwards  established  by  legal  proof.  But  they  would  have 
been  of  no  use  except  in  connection  with  the  other  parts  of  his 
machine ;  and,  therefore,  this  was  a  palpable  attempt  to  invade 
the  patent  right,  and  it  was  principally  in  reference  to  this  that 
the  lawsuits  were  afterwards  held. 

In  March,  1795,  in  the  midst  of  perplexities  and  discourage- 
ments, Mr.  Whitney  went  to  New  York  on  business,  where  he 
was  detained  three  weeks  by  fever.  As  soon  as  he  was  able,  he 
went  by  packet  to  New  Haven,  where,  on  landing,  he  was  in- 
formed, that  on  the  preceding  d&y^his  shop,  with  all  his  machines 
and  papers,  had  been  consumed  by  Jire  !  Thus  was  he  suddenly 
reduced  to  bankruptcy,  being  in  debt  four  thousand  dollars,  with- 
out any  means  of  payment.  His  mind,  however,  was  not  one  to 
sink  under  such  trials  as  even  this  ;  he  was,  on  the  contrary,  in- 
cited to  more  vigorous  effort.  Similar  was  the  spirit  manifested 
by  Mr.  Miller.  The  following  extract  of  a  letter  of  his  to  Mr. 
Whitney  may  be  a  useful  lesson  to  young  men  who  feel  themselves 
overwhelmed  with  misfortunes  : — 

"  I  think  that  we  ought  to  meet  such  events  with  equanimity. 
We  have  been  pursuing  a  valuable  object  by  honorable  means  ; 
and  I  trust  that  all  our  measures  have  been  such  as  reason  and 
virtue  must  justify.  It  has  pleased  Providence  to  postpone  the 
attainment  of  this  object.  In  the  midst  of  the  reflections  which 
your  story  has  suggested,  and  with  feelings  keenly  awake  to  the 
heavy,  the  extensive  injury  we  have  sustained,  I  feel  a  secret  joy 
and  satisfaction,  that  you  possess  a  mind  in  this  respect  similar  to 
my  own — that  you  are  not  disheartened — that  you  do  not  relin- 
quish the  pursuit — and  that  you  will  persevere,  and  endeavor,  at 
all  events,  to  attain  the  main  object.  This  is  exactly  consonant 
to  my  own  determinations.  I  will  devote  all  my  time,  all  my 
thoughts,  all  my  exertions,  and  all  the  money  I  can  earn  or  bor- 
row, to  encompass  and  complete  the  business  we  have  undertaken  ; 
and  if  fortune  should,  by  any  future  disaster,  deny  us  the  boon  we 
ask,  we  will  at  least  deserve  it.  It  shall  never  be  said  that  we 
have  lost  an  object  which  a  little  perseverance  could  have  attained. 
I  think,  indeed,  it  will  be  very  extraordinary,  if  two  younj*  men  in 
the  prime  of  life,  with  some  share  of  ingenuity,  with  a  little  know- 
ledge of  the  world,  a  great  deal  of  industry,  and  a  considerable 
command  of  property,  should  not  be  able  to  sustain  such  a  stroke 
of  misfortune  as  this,  heavy  as  it  is." 

After  this  disaster  the  company  began  to  feel  much  straitened 
for  want  of  funds.  Mr.  Miller  expresses  a  confidence  that  they 
should  be  able  to  raise  money  in  some  way  or  other,  though  he 
knows  not  how.  He  recommends  to  Mr.  Whitney  to  proceed 


114  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

forthwith  to  erect  a  new  shop,  and  to  recommence  his  business, 
and  requests  him  to  tell  the  people  of  New  Haven,  who  might  be 
disposed  to  render  them  any  service,  that  they  required  nothing 
but  a  little  time  to  get  their  machinery  in  motion  before  they  could 
make  payment,  and  that  the  loan  of  money  at  twelve  per  cent,  per 
annum  would  be  as  great  a  favor  as  they  could  ask.  But,  he 
adds,  "  in  doing  this,  use  great  care  to  avoid  giving  an  idea  that 
we  are  in  a  desperate  situation,  to  induce  us  to  borrow  money. 
To  people  who  are  deficient  in  understanding,  this  precaution  will 
be  extremely  necessary  :  men  of  sense  can  easily  distinguish  be- 
tween  the  prospect  of  large  gains,  and  the  approaches  to  bank- 
ruptcy."  "  Such  is  tho  disposition  of  man,"  he  observes  on  an- 
other occasion,  "  that  while  we  keep  afloat,  there  will  not  be  want- 
ing those  who  will  appear  willing  to  assist  us ;  but  let  us  once  be 
given  over,  and  they  will  immediately  desert  us." 

While  misfortune  was  thus  multiplying  upon  them,  intelligence 
was  received  from  England  that  the  manufacturers  had  con- 
demned the  cotton  cleaned  by  their  machines,  on  the  ground 
that  the  staple  was  greatly  injured.  This  news  threatened  the 
death-blow  to  their  hopes.  At  this  time  (1796)  they  had  thirty 
gins  at  eight  different  places  in  Georgia,  some  carried  by  horses 
and  oxen,  and  some  by  water.  Some  of  these  were  even  then 
standing  still.  The  company  had  $10,000  dollars  in  real  estate, 
suited  only  to  the  purposes  of  ginning  cotton.  The  following  ex- 
tract of  a  letter,  written  by  Mr.  Whitney  at  this  period,  will  serve 
to  show  the  state  of  his  mind  and  affairs  at  this  period  : — 

"  The  extreme  embarrassments,"  says  he, "  which  have  been  for 
a  long  time  accumulating  upon  me,  are  now  become  so  great,  that 
it  will  be  impossible  for  me  to  struggle  against  them  many  days 
longer.  It  has  required  my  utmost  exertions  to  exist,  without 
making  the  least  progress  in  our  business.  I  have  labored  hard 
against  the  strong  current  of  disappointment,  which  has  been 
threatening  to  carry  us  down  the  cataract,  but  I  have  labored 
with  a  shattered  oar,  and  struggled  in  vain,  unless  some  speedy 

relief  is  obtained Life  is  but  short  at  best,  and  six  or  seven 

years  out  of  the  midst  of  it  is,  to  him  who  makes  it,  an  immense 
sacrifice.  My  most  unremitted  attention  has  been  devoted  to  our 
business ;  I  have  sacrificed  to  it  other  objects  from  which,  before 
this  time,  I  might  certainly  have  gained  twenty  or  thirty  thousand 
dollars.  My  whole  prospects  have  been  embarked  in  it,  with  the 
expectation  that  J  should,  before  this  time,  have  realized  something 
from  it." 

The  cotton  from  Whitney's  gins  was,  however,  sought  by  mer- 
chants in  preference  to  other  kinds,  and  respectable  manufacturers 


ELI  WHITNEY.  115 

testified  in  its  favor ;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  extensive  and 
shameful  violations  of  their  patent  right,  they  might  yet  have  sue- 
ceeded,  but  these  encroachments  had  become  so  extensive  as  al- 
most to  annihilate  its  value.  The  issue  of  the  first  trial  they  were 
able  to  obtain,  is  announced  in  the  following  letter  from  Mr.  Miller, 
dated  May  11,  1797:— 

"  The  event  of  the  first  patent  suit,  after  all  our  exertions  made 
in  such  a  variety  of  ways,  has  gone  against  us.  The  preposterous 
custom  of  trying  civil  causes  of  this  intricacy  and  magnitude  by  a 
common  jury,  together  with  the  imperfection  of  the  patent  law, 
frustrated  all  our  views,  and  disappointed  expectations  which  had 
become  very  sanguine.  The  tide  of  popular  opinion  was  running 
in  our  favor,  the  judge  was  well  disposed  towards  us,  and  many 
decided  friends  were  with  us,  who  adhered  firmly  to  our  cause  and 
interests.  The  judge  gave  a  charge  to  the  jury  pointedly  in  our 
favor ;  after  which  the  defendant  himself  told  an  acquaintance  of 
his,  that  he  would  give  two  thousand  dollars  to  be  free  from  the 
verdict ;  and  yet  the  jury  gave  it  against  us,  after  a  consultation 
of  about  an  hour.  And  having  made  the  verdict  general,  no  ap- 
peal would  lie. 

"  On  Monday  morning,  when  the  verdict  was  rendered,  we  ap- 
plied  for  a  new  trial ;  but  the  judge  refused  it  to  us,  on  the  ground 
that  the  jury  might  have  made  up  their  opinion  on  the  defect  of 
the  law,  which  makes  an  aggression  consist  of  making,  devising, 
and  'using,  or  selling ;  whereas  we  could  only  charge  the  defendant 
with  using. 

"  Thus,  after  four  years  of  assiduous  labor,  fatigue,  and  diffi- 
culty, are  we  again  set  afloat  by  a  new  and  most  unexpected  ob- 
stacle. Our  hopes  of  success  are  now  removed  to  a  period  still 
more  distant  than  before,  while  our  expenses  are  realized  beyond 
all  controversy." 

Great  efforts  were  made  to  obtain  trial  in  a  second  suit,  at  the 
session  of  the  court  in  Savannah,  in  May,  1798.  A  great  number 
of  witnesses  were  collected  from  various  parts  of  the  country,  to 
the  distance  of  a  hundred  miles  from  Savannah,  when,  behold,  no 
judge  appeared,  and,  of  course,  no  court  was  held.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  failure  of  the  first  suit,  and  so  great  a  procrastina- 
tion of  the  second,  the  encroachments  on  the  patent  right  had  been 
prodigiously  multiplied,  so  as  almost  entirely  to  destroy  the  busi- 
ness of  the  patentees. 

In  April,  1799,  Mr.  Miller  writes  as  follows  : — "  The  prospect 
of  making  any  thing  by  ginning  in  this  state  is  at  an  end.  Sur- 
reptitious gins  are  erected  in  every  part  of  the  country ;  and  the 
jurymen  at  Augusta  have  come  to  an  understanding  among  them- 


116  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

selves,  that  they  will  never  give  a  cause  in  our  favor,  let  the  merits 
of  the  case  be  as  they  may." 

The  company  would  now  have  gladly  relinquished  the  plan  of 
working  their  own  machines,  and  confined  their  operations  to  the 
sale  of  patent  rights  ;  but  few  would  buy  a  patent  right  which  they 
could  use  with  impunity  without  purchasing,  and  those  few,  hardly 
in  a  single  instance,  paid  cash,  but  gave  their  notes,  which  they 
afterwards  to  a  great  extent  avoided  paying,  either  by  obtaining  a 
verdict  from  the  juries  declaring  them  void,  or  by  contriving  to 
postpone  the  collection  until  they  were  barred  by  the  statute  of 
limitations,  a  period  of  only  four  years.  When  thus  barred,  the 
agent  of  Miller  and  Whitney,  who  was  despatched  on  a  collecting 
tour  through  the  state  of  Georgia,  informed  them,  that  such  ob- 
stacles were  thrown  in  his  way  from  one  or  the  other  of  the  fore- 
going causes,  he  was  unable  to  collect  money  enough  from  all 
these  claims  to  bear  his  expenses,  but  was  compelled  to  draw  for 
nearly  the  whole  amount  of  these  upon  his  employers. 

It  was  suggested  that  an  application  to  the  legislature  of  South 
Carolina  to  purchase  the  patent  right  for  that  state  would  be  suc- 
cessful. Mr.  Whitney  accordingly  repaired  to  Columbia,  and  the 
business  was  brought  before  the  legislature  soon  after  the  opening 
of  the  session  in  December,  1801.  An  extract  from  a  letter  of 
Mr.  Whitney  to  his  friend  Stebbins,  at  this  time,  will  show  the 
nature  of  the  contract  thus  made  : — 

"  I  have  been  at  this  place  a  little  more  than  two  weeks,  attend- 
ing the  legislature.  They  closed  their  session  at  ten  o'clock  last 
evening.  A  few  hours  previous  to  their  adjournment,  they  voted 
to  purchase,  for  the  state  of  South  Carolina,  my  patent  right  to  the 
machine  for  cleaning  cotton,  at  fifty  thousand  dollars,  of  which 
sum  twenty  thousand  is  to  be  paid  in  hand,  and  the  remainder  in 
three  annual  payments  of  ten  thousand  dollars  each."  He  adds, 
"  We  get  but  a  song  for  it  in  comparison  with  the  worth  of  the 
thing ;  but  it  is  securing  something.  It  will  enable  Miller  and 
Whitney  to  pay  all  their  debts,  and  divide  something  between  them." 

In  December,  1802,  Mr.  Whitney  negotiated  a  sale  of  his  patent 
right  with  the  state  of  North  Carolina.  The  legislature  laid  a  tax 
of  two  shillings  and  sixpence  upon  every  saw*  employed  in  ginning 
cotton,  to  be  continued  for  five  years ;  and  after  deducting  the  ex- 
penses of  collection,  the  avails  were  faithfully  passed  over  to  the 
patentee.  This  compensation  was  regarded  by  Mr.  Whitney  as 
more  liberal  than  that  received  from  any  other  source.  About 
the  same  time,  Mr.  Goodrich,  an  agent  of  the  company,  entered 

*  Some  of  the  gins  had  forty  saws. 


ELI  WHITNEY.  117 

into  a  similar  negotiation  with  the  state  of  Tennessee.  This  state 
had  by  this  time  begun  to  realize  the  importance  and  usefulness 
of  the  invention.  The  citizens  testified  strongly  their  desire  of 
coming  into  possession  of  its  benefits.  The  legislature,  therefore, 
passed  a  law,  laying  a  tax  of  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents  per 
annum  on  every  saw,  for  the  space  of  four  years. 

Thus  far  prospects  were  growing  favorable  to  the  patentees, 
when  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  unexpectedly  annulled  the 
contract  she  had  made,  suspended  further  payment  of  the  balance 
then  due,  and  sued  for  the  refunding  of  what  had  already  been  paid. 

When  Mr.  Whitney  first  heard  of  the  transactions  of  the  South 
Carolina  legislature  annulling  their  contract,  he  was  at  Raleigh, 
where  he  had  just  concluded  his  negotiation  with  the  legislature 
of  North  Carolina.  In  a  letter  written  to  Mr.  Miller  at  this  time 
he  remarks  :  "  I  am,  for  my  own  part,  more  vexed  than  alarmec7 
by  their  extraordinary  proceedings.  I  think  it  behooves  us  to  b 
very  cautious  and  circumspect  in  our  measures,  and  even  in  ou. 
remarks  with  regard  to  it.  Be  cautious  what  you  say  or  publish 
till  we  meet  our  enemies  in  a  court  of  justice,  when,  if  they  have 
any  sensibility  left,  we  will  make  them  very  much  ashamed  of 
their  childish  conduct." 

But  that  Mr.  Whitney  felt  very  keenly  in  regard  to  the  severities 
afterwards  practised  towards  him,  is  evident  from  the  tenor  of  the 
remonstrance  which  he  presented  to  the  legislature.  "  The  sub- 
scriber  (says  he)  respectfully  solicits  permission  to  represent  to 
the  legislature  of  South  Carolina,  that  he  conceives  himself  to  have 
been  treated  with  unreasonable  severity  in  the  measures  recently 
taken  against  him  by  and  under  their  immediate  direction.  He 
holds  that,  to  be  seized  and  dragged  to  prison  without  being  al- 
lowed to  be  heard  in  answer  to  the  charge  alleged  against  him, 
and  indeed  without  the  exhibition  of  any  specific  charge,  is  a  direct 
violation  of  the  common  right  of  every  citizen  of  a  free  govern, 
ment ;  that  the  power,  in  this  case,  is  all  on  one  side ;  that  what, 
ever  may  be  the  issue  of  the  process  now  instituted  against  him, 
he  must,  in  any  case,  be  subjected  to  great  expense  and  extreme 
hardships ;  and  that  he  considers  the  tribunal  before  which  he  is 
holden  to  appear,  to  be  wholly  incompetent  to  decide,  definitively, 
existing  disputes  between  the  state  and  Miller  and  Whitney. 

"  The  subscriber  avers  that  he  has  manifested  no  other  than  a 
disposition  to  fulfil  all  the  stipulations,  entered  into  with  the  state 
of  South  Carolina,  with  punctuality  and  good  faith ;  and  he  begs 
leave  to  observe  farther,  that  to  have  industriously,  laboriously, 
and  exclusively,  devoted  many  years  of  the  prime  of  his  life  to 
the  invention  and  the  improvement  of  a  machine,  from  which  the 

9 


118  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

citizens  of  South  Carolina  have  already  realized  immense  profits, 
— which  is  worth  to  them  millions,  and  from  which  their  posterity, 
to  the  latest  generations,  must  continue  to  derive  the  most  im- 
portant benefits,  and  in  return  to  be  treated  as  a  felon,  a  swindler, 
and  a  villain,  has  stung  him  to  the  very  soul.  And  when  he  con- 
siders that  this  cruel  persecution  is  inflicted  by  the  very  persons 
who  are  enjoying  these  great  benefits,  and  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  his  ever  deriving  the  least  advantage  from  his 
own  labors,  the  acuteness  of  his  feelings  is  altogether  inexpressible." 

Doubts,  it  seems,-  had  arisen  in  the  public  mind  as  to  the  validity 
of  the  patent,  and  the  patentees  were  supposed  to  have  failed  in  the 
fulfilment  of  a  part  of  the  contract.  Great  exertions  had  been 
made  in  Georgia,  where,  it  will  be  remembered,  hostilities  were 
first  declared  against  him,  to  show  that  his  title  to  the  invention 
was  unsound,  and  that  somebody  in  Switzerland  had  conceived  of 
it  before  him,  and  that  the  improved  form  of  the  machine,  with 
saws  instead  of  wire  teeth,  did  not  come  within  the  patent,  having 
been  introduced  by  one  Hodgin  Holmes. 

The  popular  voice,  stimulated  by  the  most  sordid  motives,  was 
now  raised  against  him  throughout  all  the  cotton  growing  states. 
The  state  of  Tennessee  followed  the  example  of  South  Carolina, 
in  annulling  the  contract  made  with  him;  and  the  attempt  was 
made  in  North  Carolina,  but  a  committee  of  the  legislature,  to 
whom  it  was  referred,  reported  in  his  favor,  declaring  "  that  the 
contract  ought  to  be  fulfilled  with  punctuality  and  good  faith," 
which  resolution  was  adopted'  by  both  houses.  There  were  also 
high-minded  men  in  South  Carolina  who  were  indignant  at  the 
dishonorable  measures  adopted  by  their  legislature  of  1803  ;  and 
their  sentiments  had  impressed  the  community  so  favorably  with 
regard  to  Mr.  Whitney,  that  at  the  session  of  1804,  the  legislature 
not  only  rescinded  what  the  previous  one  had  done,  but  signified 
their  respect  for  Mr.  Whitney  by  marked  commendations.  Nor 
ought  it  to  be  forgotten  that  there  were  in  Georgia,  too,  those  who 
viewed  with  scorn  and  indignation  the  base  attempts  of  dema- 
gogues to  defraud  him.  The  proceedings  against  Mr.  Whitney 
were  predicated  upon  impositions  practised  upon  the  public. 

At  this  time,  a  new  and  unexpected  responsibility  devolved  on 
Mr.  Whitney,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  his  partner,  Mr. 
Miller,  who  died  on  the  7th  of  December,  1803.  Mr.  Miller  had, 
in  the  early  stages  of  the  enterprise,  indulged  very  high  hopes  of 
a  sudden  fortune  ;  but  perpetual  disappointments  appear  to  have 
attended  him  throughout  the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  history 
of  them,  as  detailed  in  his  voluminous  correspondence,  affords  an 
instructive  exemplification  of  the  anxiety,  toil,  and  uncertainty, 


ELI  WHITNEY.  U9 

that  frequently  accompany  too  eager  a  pursuit  of  wealth,  and  the 
pain  and  disappointments  that  follow  in  the  train  of  expectations 
too  highly  elated.  If  Mr.  Miller  anticipated  a  great  bargain  from 
an  approaching  auction  of  cotton,  some  sly  adventurer  was  sure 
to  step  in  before  him,  and  bid  it  out  of  his  hands.  If  he  looked 
to  his  extensive  rice  crops,  cultivated  on  the  estate  of  General 
Greene,  as  the  means  of  raising  money  to  extricate  himself  from 
the  numerous  embarrassments  into  which  he  had  fallen,  a  severe 
drought  came  on  and  shrivelled  the  crop,  or  floods  of  rain  sud- 
denly destroyed  it.  The  markets  unexpectedly  changed  at  the 
very  moment  of  selling,  and  always  to  his  disadvantage.  Heavy 
rains  likewise  destroyed  the  cotton  crops  on  which  he  had  counted 
for  thousands ;  and  more  than  all,  wicked  and  dishonest  men  con- 
trived  to  cheat  him  of  his  just  rights,  and  thus  his  airy  hopes  were 
often  frustrated,  until  at  length  he  was  beguiled  into  inextricable 
difficulties  ;  and  in  the  midst  of  all,  and  on  the  dawn  of  a  brighter 
day,  death  stepped  in  and  dissolved  the  pageant  that  had  so  long 
been  dancing  before  his  eyes. 

Mr.  Whitney  was  now  left  alone,  to  contend  singly  against  those 
difficulties  which  had  for  a  series  of  years  almost  broken  down  the 
spirits  of  both  the  partners.  The  light,  moreover,  which  seemed 
to  be  rising  upon  them  from  the  favorable  occurrences  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  proved  but  the  twilight  of  prosperity,  and  a  darker 
night  seemed  about  to  supervene. 

But  the  favorable  issue  of  the  affairs  of  Mr.  Whitney,  in  South 
Carolina,  during  the  subsequent  year,  and  the  generous  receipts 
that  he  obtained  from  the  avails  of  his  contracts  with  North  Caro- 
lina, relieved  him  from  the  embarrassments  under  which  he  had 
so  long  groaned,  and  made  him  in  some  degree  independent. 
Still,  no  small  portion  of  the  funds  thus  collected  in  North  and 
South  Carolina  was  expended  in  carrying  on  the  fruitless,  endless 
lawsuits  in  Georgia. 

In  the  United  States  court,  held  in  Georgia  in  December,  1807 
Mr.  Whitney  obtained  a  most  important  decision,  in  a.  suit  brought 
against  a  trespasser  of  the  name  of  Fort.  It  was  on  this  trial  that 
Judge  Johnson  gave  his  celebrated  decision.  It  was  in  the  follow- 
ing words  :— 

"  Whitney,  survivor  of  "J 

Miller  $  Whitney,        In  e    ity. 

VS. 

Arthur  Fort.          ) 

"  The  complainants,  in  this  case,  are  proprietors  of  the  machine 
called  the  saw  gin :  the  use  of  which  is  to  detach  the  short  staple 
cotton  from  its  seed. 


120  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

"  The  defendant,  in  violation  of  their  patent  right,  has  con- 
structed, and  continues  to  use  this  machine ;  and  the  object  of 
this  suit  is  to  obtain  a  perpetual  injunction  to  prevent  a  continuance 
of  this  infraction  of  complainant's  right. 

"  Defendant  admits  most  of  the  facts  in  the  bill  set  forth,  but 
contends  that  the  complainants  are  not  entitled  to  the  benefits  of 
the  act  of  congress  on  this  subject,  because — 

1st.  The  invention  is  not  original. 

2d.  Is  not  useful. 

3d.  That  the  machine  which  he  uses  is  materially  different  from 
their  invention,  in  the  application  of  an  improvement,  the  invention 
of  another  person. 

"  The  court  will  proceed  to  make  a  few  remarks  upon  the 
several  points  as  they  have  been  presented  to  their  view  :  whether 
the  defendant  was  now  at  liberty  to  set  up  this  defence  whilst  the 
patent  right  of  complainants  remains  unrepealed,  has  not  been 
made  a  question,  and  they  will  therefore  not  consider  it. 

"  To  support  the  originality  of  the  invention,  the  complainants 
have  produced  a  variety  of  depositions  of  witnesses,  examined  un- 
der commission,  whose  examination  expressly  proves  the  origin, 
progress,  and  completion  of  the  machine  by  Whitney,  one  of  the 
copartners.  Persons  who  were  made  privy  to  his  first  discovery, 
testify  to  the  several  experiments  which  he  made  in  their  presence 
before  he  ventured  to  expose  his  invention  to  the  scrutiny  of  the 
public  eye.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  resort  to  such  testimony 
to  maintain  this  point.  The  jealousy  of  the  artist  to  maintain  that 
reputation  which  his  ingenuity  has  justly  acquired,  has  urged  him 
to  unnecessary  pains  on  this  subject.  There  are  circumstances; 
in  the  knowledge  of  all  mankind  which  prove  the  originality  of 
this  invention  more  satisfactorily  to  the  mind  than  the  direct  testk 
mony  of  a  host  of  witnesses.  The  cotton  plant  furnished  clothing 
to  mankind  before  the  age  of  Herodotus.  The  green  seed  is  a 
species  much  more  productive  than  the  black^  and  by  nature 
adapted  to  a  much  greater  variety  of  climate ;  but  by  reason  of 
the  strong  adherence  of  the  fibre  to  the  seed,  without  the  aid  of 
some  more  powerful  machine  for  separating  it  than  any  formerly 
known  among  us,  the  cultivation  o/  it  w&idd  never  have  been  made 
an  object.  The  machine  of  which  Mr.  Whitney  claims  the  inven- 
tion so  facilitates  the  preparation  of  this  species  for  use,  that  the 
cultivation  of  it  has  suddenly  become  an  object  of  infinitely  greater; 
national  importance  than  that  of  the  other  species  ever  can  be.  Is 
it,  then,  to  be  imagined,  that  if  this  machine  had  been  before  dis- 
covered, the  use  of  it  would  ever  have  been  lost,  or  could  have 
been  confined  to  any  tract  or  country  left  unexplored  by  commer-* 


ELI  WHITNEY.  121 

cial  enterprise  ?  But  it  is  unnecessary  to  remark  further  upon  this 
subject.  A  number  of  years  have  elapsed  since  Mr.  Whitney  took 
out  his  patent,  and  no  one  has  produced  or  pretended  to  prove  the 
existence  of  a  machine  of  similar  construction  or  use. 

"  2d.  With  regard  to  the  utility  of  this  discovery,  the  court 
would  deem  it  a  waste  of  time  to  dwell  long  upon  this  topic.  Is 
there  a  man  who  hears  us  who  has  not  experienced  its  utility  1 
the  whole  interior  of  the  southern  states  was  languishing,  and  its 
inhabitants  emigrating  for  want  of  some  object  to  engage  their 
attention  and  employ  their  industry,  when  the  invention  of  this 
machine  at  once  opened  views  to  them  which  set  the  whole  coun- 
try in  active  motion.  From  childhood  to  age  it  has  presented  to 
us  a  lucrative  employment.  Individuals  who  were  depressed  with 
poverty  and  sunk  in  idleness,  have  suddenly  risen  to  wealth  and 
respectability.  Our  debts  have  been  paid  off;  our  capitals  have 
increased,  and  our  lands  treUed  themselves  in  value.  We  cannot 
express  the  weight  of  the  obligation  which  the  country  owes  to  this 
invention.  The  extent  of  it  cannot  now  be  seen.  Some  faint  pre- 
sentiment may  be  formed  from  the  reflection  that  cotton  is  rapidly 
supplanting  wool,  flax,  silk,  and  even  furs  in  manufactures,  and 
may  one  day  profitably  supply  the  use  of  specie  in  our  East  India 
trade.  Our  sister  states,  also,  participate  in  the  benefits  of  this 
invention  ;  for,  besides  % affording  the  raw  material  for  their  manu- 
facturers, the  bulkiness  and  quantity  of  the  article  afford  a  valuable 
employment  for  their  shipping. 

"  3d.  The  third  and  last  ground  taken  by  defendant  appears  to 
be  that  on  which  he  mostly  relies.  In  the  specification,  the  teeth 
made  use  of  are  of  strong  wire  inserted  into  the  cylinder.  A  Mr. 
Holmes  has  cut  teeth  in  plates  of  iron,  and  passed  them  over  the 
cylinder.  This  is  certainly  a  meritorious  improvement  in  the 
mechanical  process  of  constructing  this  machine.  But  at  last 
what  does  it  amount  to,  except  a  more  convenient  mode  of  making 
the  same  thing ;  every  characteristic  of  Mr.  Whitney's  machine 
is  preserved.  The  cylinder,  the  iron  tooth,  the  rotary  motion  of 
the  tooth,  the  breast  work  and  brush,  and  all  the  merit  that  this 
discovery  can  assume,  is  that  of  a  more  expeditious  mode  of  at- 
taching the  tooth  to  the  cylinder.  After  being  attached,  in  opera- 
tion and  effect  they  are  entirely  the  same.  Mr.  Whitney  may  not 
be  at  liberty  to  use  Mr.  Holmes's  iron  plate ;  but  certainly  Mr. 
Holmes's  improvement  does  not  destroy  Mr.  Whitney's  patent 
right.  Let  the  decree  for  a  perpetual  injunction  be  entered." 

This  favorable  decision,  however,  did  not  put  a  final  stop  to 
aggression.  At  the  next  session  of  the  United  States  court,  two 
other  actions  were  brought,  and  verdicts  for  damages  gained  of 

9* 


122  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

two  thousand  dollars  in  one  case,  and  one  thousand  and  five  hun . 
dred  dollars  in  the  other. 

The  influence  of  these  decisions,  however,  availed  Mr.  Whitney 
very  little,  for  now  the  term  of  his  patent  right  was  searly  expired. 
More  than  sixty,  suits  had  been  instituted  in  Georgia  before  a  single 
decision  on  the  merits  of  his  claim  was  obtained,  and  at  the  period 
of  this  decision  thirty  years  of  his  patent  had  expired.  In  prose- 
cution  of  this  troublesome  business,  Mr.  Whitney  had  made  six 
different  journeys  to  Georgia,  several  of  which  were  accomplished 
by  land  at  a  time  when,  compared  with  the  present,  the  difficulties 
of  such  journeys  were  exceedingly  great,  and  exposed  him  to  ex- 
cessive  fatigues  and  privations^  which  at  times  seriously  affected 
his  health,  and  even  jeopardized  his  life.  A  gentleman  of  much 
experience,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  Mr.  Whitney's  affairs  in 
the  south,  and  sometimes  acted  as  his  legal  adviser,  observes,  that 
"  in  all  his  experience  in  the  thorny  profession  of  the  law,  he  has 
never  seen  a  case  of  such  perseverance,  under  such  persecution ; 
nor,"  he  adds,  "  do  I  believe  that  I  ever  knew  any  other  man  who 
would  have  met  them  with  equal  coolness  and  firmness,  or  who 
would  finally  have  obtained  even  the  partial  success  which  he  had. 
He  always  called  on  me  in  New  York,  on  his  way  south,  when 
going  to  attend  his  endless  trials,  and  to  meet  the  mischievous 
contrivances  of  men  who  seemed  inexhaustible  in  their  resources 
of  evil.  Even  now,  after  thirty  years,,  my  head  aches  to  recollect 
his  narratives  of  new  trials,  fresh  disappointments,  and  accumu- 
lated wrongs." 

In  1798,  Mr.  Whitney  became  deeply  impressed  with  the  uncer- 
tainty of  all  his  hopes  founded  upon  the  cotton  gin^  notwithstanding 
their  high  promise,  and  he  began  to  think  seriously  of  devoting 
himself  to  some  business  in  which  superior  ingenuity,,  seconded  by 
uncommon  industry,  qualifications  which  he  must  have  been  con- 
scious of  possessing  in  no  ordinary  degree,  would  conduct  him  by 
a  slow  but  sure  route  to  a  competent  fortune  ;  and  we  have  always 
considered  it  indicative  of  a  solid  judgment,  and  a  well-balanced 
mind,  that  he  did  not,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  men  of  in- 
ventive genius,  become  so  poisoned  with  the  hopes  of  vast  and 
sudden  wealth,,  as  to  be  disqualified  for  making  a  reasonable  pro- 
vision for  life  by  the  sober  earnings  of  frugal  industry. 

The  enterprise  which  he  selected  in  accordance  with  these  views 
was  the  manufacture  of  arms  for  the  United  States.  He  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Hon.  Oliver  Wolcott,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  by 
whose  influence  he  obtained  a  contract  for  the  manufacture  of  ten 
thousand  stand  of  arms,  four  thousand  of  which  were  to  be  deliv- 
ered on  or  before  the  last  of  September  of  the  ensuing  year,  (the 


ELI  WHITNEY.  125 

contract  being  concluded  on  the  14th  of  January,  1798,)  and  the 
remaining  six  thousand  within  one  year  from  that  time. 

The  site  which  Mr.  Whitney  had  purchased  for  his  works  was 
at  the  foot  of  the  celebrated  precipice  called  East  Rock,  near 
the  city  of  New  Haven.  This  spot  (which  is  now  called  Whit, 
neyville)  is  justly  admired  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  its  scenery. 
A  waterfall  of  moderate  extent  afforded  here  the  necessary  power 
for  propelling  the  machinery.  In  this  pleasant  retreat  Mr.  Whit- 
ney commenced  his  operations  with  the  greatest  zeal;  and  his 
great  mind,  and  daring,  persevering  spirit,  were  abundantly  mani- 
fested in  this  undertaking.  His  machinery  was  yet  to  be  built,  his 
materials  to  be  collected,  and  even  his  workmen  to  be  taught,  and 
that  in  a  business  with  which  he  was  imperfectly  acquainted.  A 
severe  winter  retarded  his  operations,  and  the  multiplied  difficul- 
ties of  his  undertaking  rendered  him  wholly  incompetent  to  the 
fulfilment  of  the  contract,  and  delivering  the  arms  within  the  limited 
time.  Only  five  hundred,  instead  of  four  thousand,  were  delivered 
the  first  year,  and  eight,  instead  of  two  years,  were  found  neces- 
sary for  completing  the  whole.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  govern- 
ment seems  to  have  been  altogether  liberal  in  its  dealings  with  him. 

During  the  eight  years  Mr.  Whitney  was  occupied  in  performing 
this  engagement,  he  applied  himself  to  business  with  the  most 
exemplary  diligence,  rising  every  morning  as  soon  as  it  was  day, 
and  at  night  setting  every  thing  in  order  appertaining  to  all  parts 
of  the  establishment  before  he  retired  to  rest.  In  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  at  this  period,  he  says — 
"  I  find  that  my  personal  attention  and  oversight  are  more  con- 
stantly and  essentially  necessary  to  every  branch  of  the  work  than 
I  apprehended.  Mankind,  generally,  are  not  to  be  depended  on, 
and  the  best  workmen  I  can  find  are  incapable  of  directing. 
Indeed  there  is  no  branch  of  the  work  that  can  proceed  well, 
scarcely  for  a  single  hour,  unless  I  am  present."  His  genius,  in. 
deed,  impressed  itself  on  every  part  of  the  manufactory,  extending 
even  to  the  most  common  tools,  all  of  which  received  some  pecu- 
liar modification  which  improved  them  in  accuracy,  or  efficacy,  or 
beauty.  His  machinery  for  making  the  several  parts  of  a  musket 
was  made  to  operate  with  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  uniform- 
ity and  precision.  The  object  at  which  he  aimed,  and  which  he 
fully  accomplished,  was  to  make  the  same  parts  of  different  guns, 
as  the  locks,  for  example,  as  much  like  each  other  as  the  succes- 
sive impressions  of  a  copper-plate  engraving.  It  has  generally 
been  conceded  that  Mr.  Whitney  greatly  improved  the  art  of 
manufacturing  arms,  and  laid  his  country  under  permanent  obliga. 
tions,  by  augmenting  her  facilities  for  national  defence.  So  rnnid 


126  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

has  been  the  improvement  in  the  arts  and  manufactures  in  this 
country,  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  the  low  state  in  which 
they  were  thirty  years  ago.  To  this  advancement  the  genius  and 
industry  of  Mr.  Whitney  most  essentially  contributed ;  for  while 
he  was  clearing  off  the  numerous  impediments  which  were  thrown 
in  his  way,  he  v/as  at  the  same  time  performing  the  office  of  a 
pioneer  to  the  succeeding  generation. 

In  1812  he  entered  into  a  contract  to  manufacture  for  the  United 
States  fifteen  thousand  stand  of  arms,  and  in  the  mean  time  he  made 
a  similar  contract  with  the  State  of  New  York. 

Several  other  persons  made  contracts  with  the  government  at 
about  the  same  time,  and  attempted  the  manufacture  of  muskets, 
following,  substantially,  so  far  as  they  understood  it,  the  method 
pursued  in  England. — The  result  of  their  efforts  was  a  complete 
failure  to  manufacture  muskets  of  the  quality  required,  at  the  price 
agreed  to  be  paid  by  the  government :  and  in  some  instances  they 
expended  in  the  execution  of  their  contracts,  a  considerable  for- 
tune  in  addition  to  the  whole  amount  received  for  their  work. 

The  low  state  to  which  the  arts  had  been  depressed  in  this  coun- 
try by  the  policy  of  England,  under  the  colonial  system,  and  from 
which  they  had  then  scarcely  begun  to  recover,  together  with  the 
high  price  of  labor,  and  other  causes,  conspired  to  render  it  im- 
practicable at  that  time  even  for  those  most  competent  to  the  un- 
dertaking, to  manufacture  muskets  here  in  the  English  method. 
And  doubtless  Mr.  Whitney  would  have  shared  the  fate  of  his 
enterprising  but  unsuccessful  competitors,  had  he  adopted  the 
course  which  they  pursued ;  but  his  genius  struck  out  for  him  a 
course  entirely  new. 

In  maturing  his  system  he  had  many  obstacles  to  combat,  and 
a  much  longer  time  was  occupied,  than  he  had  anticipated;  but 
with  his  characteristic  firmness  he  pursued  his  object,  in  the  face 
of  the  obloquy  and  ridicule  of  his  competitors,  the  evil  predictions 
of  his  enemies,  and  the  still  more  discouraging  and  disheartening 
misgivings,  doubts,  and  apprehensions  of  his  friends.  His  efforts 
were"  at  length  crowned  with  success,  and  he  had  the  satisfaction 
to  find,  that  the  business  which  had  proved  so  ruinous  to  others, 
was  likely  to  prove  not  altogether  unprofitable  to  himself. 

Our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  give  a  minute  and  detailed  ac- 
count of  this  system  ;  and  we  shall  only  glance  at  two  or  three  of 
its  more  prominent  features,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  its  gen- 
eral character. 

The  several  parts  of  the  musket  were,  under  this  system,  carried 
along  through  the  various  processes  of  manufacture,  in  lots  of  some 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  each.  In  their  various  stages  of  pro- 


ELI  WHITNEY.  127 

gress,  they  were  made  to  undergo  successive  operations  by  ma- 
chinery, which  not  only  vastly  abridged  the  labor,  but  at  the  same 
time  so  fixed  and  determined  their  form  and  dimensions,  as  to 
make  comparatively  little  skill  necessary  in  the  manual  operations. 
Such  was  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  this  machinery, 
that  it  could  be  worked  by  persons  of  little  or  no  experience ;  and 
yet  it  performed  the  work  with  so  much  precision,  that  when,  in 
the  later  stages  of  the  process,  the  several  parts  of  the  musket 
came  to  be  put  together,  they  were  as  readily  adapted  to  each 
other,  as  if  each  had  been  made  for  its  respective  fellow.  A  lot 
of  these  parts  passed  through  the  hands  of  several  different  work- 
men successively,  (and  in  some  cases  several  times  returned,  at 
intervals  more  or  less  remote,  to  the  hands  of  the  same  workman,) 
each  performing  upon  them  every  time  some  single  and  simple 
operation,  by  machinery  or  by  hand,  until  they  were  completed. 
Thus  Mr.  Whitney  reduced  a  complex  business,  embracing  many 
ramifications,  almost  to  a  mere  succession  of  simple  processes,  and 
was  thereby  enabled  to  make  a  division  of  the  labor  among  his 
workmen,  on  a  principle  which  was  not  only  more  extensive,  but 
also  altogether  more  philosophical,  than  that  pursued  in  the  English 
method.  In  England,  the  labor  of  making  a  musket  was  divided 
by  making  the  different  workmen  the  manufacturers  of  different 
limbs,  while  in  Mr.  Whitney's  system  the  work  was  divided  with 
reference  to  its  nature,  and  several  workmen  performed  different 
operations  on  the  same  limb. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  under  such  an  arrangement  any  per- 
son of  ordinary  capacity  would  soon  acquire  sufficient  dexterity  to 
perform  a  branch  of  the  work.  Indeed,  so  easy  did  Mr.  Whitney 
find  it  to  instruct  new  and  inexperienced  workmen,  that  he  uni- 
formly preferred  to  do  so,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  combat  the 
prejudices  of  those,  who  had  learned  the  business  under  a  different 
system. 

When  Mr.  Whitney's  mode  of  conducting  the  business  was 
brought  into  successful  operation,  and  the  utility  of  his  machinery 
was  fully  demonstrated,  the  clouds  of  prejudice  which  lowered  over 
his  first  efforts,  were  soon  dissipated,  and  he  had  the  satisfaction 
of  seeing  not  only  his  system,  but  most  of  his  machinery,  intro. 
duced  into  every  other  considerable  establishment  for  the  manu- 
facture of  arms,  both  public  and  private,  in  the  United  States. 

The  labors  of  Mr.  Whitney  in  the  manufacture  of  arms,  have 
been  often  and  fully  admitted  by  the  officers  of  the  government,  to 
have  been  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  public  interest.  In  the  year 
1822,  Mr.  Calhoun,  then  secretary  of  war,  admitted,  in  a  conver- 
sation with  Mr.  Whitney,  that  the  government  were  saving  twenty- 


128  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

five  thousand  dollars  per  annum  at  the  two  public  armories  alone, 
by  his  improvements.  This  admission,  though  it  is  believed  to  be 
far  below  the  truth,  is  sufficient  to  show,  that  the  subject  of  this 
memoir  deserved  well  of  his  country  in  this  department  of  her 
service. 

It  should  be  remarked,  that  the  utility  of  Mr.  Whitney's  labors 
during  the  period  of  his  life  which  we  have  now  been  contemplat- 
ing, was  not  limited  to  the  particular  business  in  which  he  wag 
engaged.  Many  of  the  inventions  which  he  made  to  facilitate  the 
manufacture  of  muskets,  were  applicable  to  most  other  manufac- 
tures of  iron  and  steel.  To  many  of  these  they  were  soon  extend- 
ed, and  became  the  nucleus  around  which  other  inventions  clus- 
tered ;  and  at  the  present  time  some  of  them  may  be  recognised  in 
almost  every  considerable  workshop  of  that  description  in  the 
United  States. 

In  the  year  1812,  Mr.  W.  made  application  to  congress  for  the 
renewal  of  his  patent  for  the  cotton  gin.  In  his  memorial,  he  pre- 
sented a  history  of  the  struggles  he  had  been  forced  to  encounter 
in  defence  of  his  right,  observing  that  he  had  been  unable  to  obtain 
any  decision  on  the  merits  of  his  claim  until  he  .had  been  eleven 
years  in  the  law,  and  thirteen  years  of  his  patent  term  had  expired. 
He  sets  forth,  that  his  invention  had  been  a  source  of  opulence  to 
thousands  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  that,  as  a  labor- 
saving  machine,  it  would  enable  one  man  to  perform  the  work  of  a 
thousand  men  ;  and  that  it  furnishes  to  the  whole  family  of  man- 
kind, at  a  very  cheap  rate,  the  most  essential  article  of  their  cloth- 
ing. Hence,  he  humbly  conceived  himself  entitled  to  a  further 
remuneration  from  his  country,  and  thought  he  ought  to  be  admit- 
ted to  a  more  liberal  participation  with  his  fellow  citizens  in  the 
benefits  of  his  invention.  Although  so  great  advantages  had  been 
already  experienced,  and  the  prospect  of  future  benefits  was  so 
promising,  still,  many  of  those  whose  interest  had  been  most  pro. 
moted,  and  the  value  of  whose  property  had  been  most  enhanced 
by  this  invention,  had  obstinately  persisted  in  refusing  to  make  any 
compensation  to  the  inventor.  The  very  men  whose  wealth  had 
been  acquired  by  the  use  of  this  machine,  and  who  had  grown  rich 
beyond  all  former  example,  had  combined  their  exertions  to  pre- 
vent the  patentee  from  deriving  any  emolument  from  his  invention. 
From  that  state  in  which  he  had  first  made,  and  where  he  had  first 
.introduced-  his  machine,  and  which  had  derived  the  most  signal 
benefits  from  it,  he  had  received  nothing ;  and  from  no  state  had 
he  received  the  amount  of  half  a  cent  per  pound  on  the  cotton 
cleaned  with  his  machines  in  one  year.  Estimating  the  value  of 
the  labor  of  one  man  at  twenty  cents  per  day,  the  whole  amount 


ELI  WHITNEY.  129 

Which  had  been  received  by  him  for  his  invention,  was  not  equal 
to  the  value  of  the  labor  saved  in  one  hour,  by  his  machines  then 
in  use  in  the  United  States.  "  This  invention  (he  proceeds)  now 
gives  to  the  southern  section  of  the  Union,  over  and  above  the 
profits  which  would  be  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  any  other 
crop,  an  annual  emolument  of  at  least  three  millions  of  dollars."* 
The  foregoing  statement  does  not  rest  on  conjecture, — it  is  no  vis- 
ionary speculation, — all  these  advantages  have  been  realized  ;  the 
planters  of  the  southern  states  have  counted  the  cash,  felt  the  weight 
of  it  in  their  pockets,  and  heard  the  exhilarating  sound  of  its  collis- 
ion. Nor  do  the  advantages  stop  here :  this  immense  source  of 
wealth  is  bat  just  beginning  to  be  opened.  Cotton  is  a  more 
cleanly  and  healthful  article  of  cultivation  than  tobacco  and  indigo, 
which  it  has  superseded,  and  does  not  so  much  impoverish  the  soil. 
This  invention  has  already  trebled  the  value  of  the  land  through  a 
great  extent  of  territory ;  and  the  degree  to  which  the  cultivation 
of  cotton  may  be  still  augmented,  is  altogether  incalculable.  This 
species  of  cotton  has  been  known  in  all  countries  where  cotton  has 
been  raised,  from  time  immemorial,  but  was  never  known  as  an 
article  of  commerce,  until  since  this  method  of  cleaning  it  was  dis- 
covered. In  short,  (to  quote  the  language  of  Judge  Johnson,)  if  we 
should  assert  that  the  benefits  of  this  invention  exceed  one  hundred 
millions  of  dollars,  we  can  prove  the  assertion  by  correct  calcula- 
tion. "  It  is  objected  that  if  the  patentee  succeeds  in  procuring 
the  renewal  of  his  patent,  he  will  be  too  rich.  There  is  no  proba- 
bility that  the  patentee,  if  the  term  of  his  patent  were  extended  for 
twenty  years,  would  ever  obtain  for  his  invention  one  half  as  much 
as  many  an  individual  will  gain  by  the  use  of  it.  Up  to  the  present 
time,  the  whole  amount  of  what  he  has  acquired  from  this  source, 
(after  deducting  his  expenses,)  does  not  exceed  one  half  the  sum 
which  a  single  individual  has  gained  by  the  use  of  the  machine  in 
one  year.  It  is  true  that  considerable  sums  have  been  obtained 
from  some  of  the  states  where  the  machine  is  used ;  but  no  small 
portion  of  these  sums  has  been  expended  in  prosecuting  his  claim 
in  a  state  where  nothing  has  been  obtained,  and  where  his  machine 
has  been  used  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

"Your  memorialist  has  not  been  able  to  discover  any  reason 
why  he,  as  well  as  others,  is  not  entitled  to  share  the  benefits  of 
his  own  labors.  He  who  speculates  upon  the  markets,  and  takes 
advantage  of  the  necessities  of  others,  and  by  these  means  accumu- 
lates property,  is  called  *  a  man  of  enterprise' — *  a  man  of  busi- 
ness'— he  is  complimented  for  his  talents,  and  is  protected  by  the 

*  This  was  in  1812 :  the  amount  of  profit  is  at  this  time  incomparably  greater. 


130  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

laws.  He  however  only  gets  into  his  possession,  that  which  was 
before  in  the  possession  of  another ;  he  adds  nothing  to  the  public 
stock ;  and  can  he  who  has  given  thousands  to  others,  be  thought 
unreasonable,  if  he  asks  one  in  return? 

"  It  is  to  be  remembered,  that  the  pursuit  of  wealth  by  means  of 
new  inventions,  is  a  very  precarious  and  uncertain  one  ; — a  lottery 
where  there  are  many  thousand  blanks  to  one  prize.  Of  all  the 
various  attempts  at  improvements,  there  are  probably  not  more 
than  one  in  five  hundred  for  which  a  patent  is  taken  out ;  and  of 
all  the  patents  taken  out,  not  one  in  twenty  has  yielded  a  nett  profit 
to  the  patentee  equal  to  the  amount  of  the  patent  fees.  In  cases 
where  a  useful  and  valuable  invention  is  brought  into  operation,  the 
reward  ought  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  hazard  of  the  pursuit.  The 
patent  law  has  now  been  in  operation  more  than  fourteen  years. 
Many  suits  for  damages  have  been  instituted  against  those  who 
have  infringed  the  right  of  patentees ;  and  it  is  a  fact,  that  very 
rarely  has  the  patentee  ever  recovered.  If  you  would  hold  out  in- 
ducements for  men  of  real  talents  to  engage  in  these  pursuits,  your 
rewards  must  be  sure  and  substantial.  Men  of  this  description 
can  calculate,  and  will  know  how  to  appreciate,  the  recompense 
which  they  are  to  receive  for  their  labors.  If  the  encouragement 
held  out  be  specious  and  delusive,  the  discerning  will  discover  the 
fallacy,  and  will  despise  it :  the  weak  and  visionary  only  will  be 
decoyed  by  it,  and  your  patent  office  will  be  filled  with  rubbish. 
The  number  of  those  who  succeed  in  bringing  into  operation  really 
useful  and  important  improvements,  always  has  been,  and  always 
must  be,  very  small.  It  is  not  probable  that  this  number  can  ever 
be  as  great  as  one  in  a  hundred  thousand.  It  is  therefore  impossi- 
ble that  they  can  ever  exert  upon  the  community  an  undue  influ- 
ence. There  is,  on  the  contrary,  much  probability  and  danger  that 
their  rights  will  be  trampled  on  by  the  many." 

Notwithstanding  these  cogent  arguments,  the  application  was 
rejected  by  Congress.  Some  liberal  minded  and  enlightened  men 
from  the  cotton  districts,  favored  the  petition :  but  a  majority  of 
the  members  from  that  section  of  the  Union,  were  warmly  opposed 
to  granting  it. 

In  a  correspondence  with  the  late  Mr.  Robert  Fulton,  on  the 
same  subject,  Mr.  Whitney  observes  as  follows  : — "  The  difficulties 
with  which  I  have  had  to  contend  have  originated,  principally,  in 
the  want  of  a  disposition  in  mankind  to  do  justice.  My  invention 
was  new  and  distinct  from  every  other :  it  stood  alone.  It  was 
not  interwoven  with  any  thing  before  known  ;  and  it  can  seldom 
happen  that  an  invention  or  improvement  is  so  strongly  marked, 
and  can  be  so  clearly  and  specifically  identified ;  and  I  have 


ELI   WHITNEY.  131 

always  believed,  that  I  should  have  had  no  difficulty  in  causing  my 
rights  to  be  respected,  if  it  had  been  less  valuable,  and  been  used 
only  by  a  small  portion  of  the  community.  But  the  use  of  this 
machine  being  immensely  profitable  to  almost  every  planter  in  the 
cotton  districts,  all  were  interested  in  trespassing  upon  the  patent 
right,  and  each  kept  the  other  in  countenance.  Demagogues  made 
themselves  popular  my  misrepresentation,  and  unfounded  clamors, 
both  against  the  right,  and  against  the  law  made  for  its  protection. 
Hence  there  arose  associations  and  combinations  to  oppose  both* 
At  one  time,  but  few  men  in  Georgia  dared  to  come  into  court, 
and  testify  to  the  most  simple  facts  within  their  knowledge,  relative 
to  the  use  of  the  machine.  In  one  instance,  I  had  great  difficulty 
in  proving  that  the  machine  had  been  used  in  Georgia,  although,  at 
the  same  moment,  there  were  three  separate  setts  of  this  machinery 
in  motion,  within  fifty  yards  of  the  building  in  which  the  court  sat, 
and  all  so  near  that  the  rattling  of  the  wheels  was  distinctly  heard 
on  the  steps  of  the  court  Jiouse."* 

While,  however,  unsuccessfully  endeavoring  to  secure  to  himself 
some  of  the  avails  of  the  immense  benefits  he  had  thus  bestowed 
on  his  fellow  citizens,  his  manufactory  was  gradually  leading  him 
to  more  affluent  and  liberal  circumstances.  In  January,  1817,  he 
married  Miss  Henrietta  F.  Edwards,  the  youngest  daughter  of  the 
Hon.  Pierpont  Edwards,  of  the  District  Court  for  the  State  of  Con- 
necticut. Fortune  seemed  now  to  smile  upon  him,  as  he  saw  his 
domestic  circle  increase  by  the  addition  of  a  son  and  three  daugh- 
ters, and  a  prosperous  and  sunny  close  appeared  to  be  about  to 
terminate  his  stormy  and  vexatious  day  of  life. 

But  death  who  comes  to  all,  prostrated  him  upon  a  bed  of  pain; 
and  after  a  protracted  period  of  suffering,  he  breathed  his  last,  on 
the  8th  of  January,  1825,  after  having  labored  for  a  long  while 
under  a  formidable  and  tedious  disease. 

The  strongest  demonstrations  of  respect  and  regard,  were  mani- 
fested by  the  citizens  of  New  Haven,  in  committing  his  remains  to 

*  In  one  of  his  trials,  Mr.  Whitney  adopted  the  following  plan,  in  order  to  show 
how  nugatory  were  the  methods  of  evasion  practised  by  his  adversaries.  They 
were  endeavoring  to  have  his  claim  to  the  invention  set  aside,  on  the  ground, 
that  the  teeth  in  his  machine  were  made  of  wire,  inserted  into  the  cylinder  of 
wood,  while  in  the  machine  of  Holmes,  the  teeth  were  cut  in  plates,  or  iron  sur- 
rounding the  cylinder,  forming  a  circular  saw.  Mr.  Whitney,  by  an  ingenious 
device,  (consisting  chiefly  of  sinking  the  plate  below  the  surface  of  the  cylinder, 
and  suffering  the  teeth  to  project,)  contrived  to  give  to  the  saw  teeth  the  appear- 
ance of  wires,  while  he  prepared  another  cylinder  in  which  the  wire  teeth  were 
made  to  look  like  saw  teeth.  The  two  cylinders  were  produced  in  court,  and  the 
witnesses  were  called  on  to  testify  which  was  the  invention  of  Whitney,  and 
which  that  of  Holmes.  They  accordingly  swore  the  saw  teeth  upon  Whitney, 
and  the  wire  teeth  upon  Holmes ;  upon  which  the  judge  declared  that  it  was  un- 
necessary to  proceed  any  farther,  the  principle  of  both  being  manifestly  the  same, 

10 


132  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

the  earth,  and  the  Rev.  President  Day  pronounced  over  his  grave 
the  following  eulogy. 

"  How  frequent  and  how  striking  are  the  monitions  to  us,  that 
this  world  is  not  the  place  of  our  rest ! 

"  It  is  not  often  the  case,  that  a  man  has  laid  his  plans  for  the 
business  and  the  enjoyment  of  life,  with  a  deeper  sagacity,  than  the 
friend  whose  remains  we  have  now  committed  to  the  dust.  He 
had  received,  as  the  gift  of  heaven,  a  mind  of  a  superior  order. 
Early  habits  of  thinking  gave  to  it  a  character  of  independence 
and  originality.  He  was  accustomed  to  form  his  decisions,  not 
after  the  model  of  common  opinion,  but  by  his  own  nicely  balanced 
judgment.  His  mind  was  enriched  with  the  treasures  which  are 
furnished  by  a  liberal  education.  He  had  a  rare  fertility  of  inven- 
tion in  the  arts  ;  an  exactness  of  execution  almost  unequalled.  By 
a  single  exercise  of  his  powers,  he  changed  the  state  of  cultivation, 
and  multiplied  the  wealth,  of  a  large  portion  of  our  country.  He 
set  an  example  of  system  and  precision  in  mechanical  operations, 
which  others  had  not  even  thought  of  attempting. 

"  The  higher  qualities  of  his  mind,  instead  of  unfitting  him  foi 
ordinary  duties,  were  finely  tempered  with  taste  and  judgment  in  the 
business  of  life.  His  manners  were  formed  by  an  extensive  inter- 
course with  the  best  society.  He  had  an  energy  of  character  which 
carried  him  through  difficulties  too  formidable  for  ordinary  minds. 

"  With  these  advantages,  he  entered  on  the  career  of  life.  His 
efforts  were  crowned  with  success.  An  ample  competency  was 
the  reward  of  his  industry  and  skill.  He  had  gained  the  respect 
of  all  classes  of  the  community.  His  opinions  were  regarded  with 
peculiar  deference,  by  the  man  of  science,  as  well  as  the  practical 
artist.  His  large  and  liberal  views,  his  knowledge  of  the  world, 
the  wide  range  of  his  observations,  his  public  spirit,  and  his  acts 
of  beneficence,  had  given  him  a  commanding  influence  in  society. 
The  gentleness  and  refinement  of  his  manners,  and  the  delicacy  of 
his  feelings  in  the  social  and  domestic  relations,  had  endeared  him 
to  a  numerous  circle  of  relatives  and  friends. 

"  And  what  were  his  reflections  in  review  of  the  whole,  in  con- 
nection with  the  distressing  scenes  of  the  last  period  of  life  ?  *  All 
is  as  the  flower  of  the  grass :  the  wind  passeth  over  it,  and  it  is 
gone.'  All  on  earth  is  transient ;  all  in  eternity  is  substantial  and 
enduring.  His  language  was,  *  I  am  a  sinner.  But  God  is  mer- 
ciful. The  only  ground  of  acceptance  before  him,  is  through  the 
great  Mediator.'  From  this  mercy,  through  this  Mediator,  is  de- 
rived our  solace  under  this  heavy  bereavement.  On  this,  rest  the 
hopes  of  the  mourners,  that  they  shall-  meet  the  deceased  with  joy, 
at  the  resurrection  of  the  just." 


ELI  WHITNEY.  133 

The  following  account  is  given  of  Mr.  Whitney's  character,— 
a  character  not  often  met  with  in  the  common  walks  of  life. 

His  manners  were  conciliatory,  and  his  whole  appearance  such 
as  to  inspire  universal  respect.  Among  his  particular  friends,  no 
man  was  more  esteemed.  Some  of  the  earliest  of  his  intimate  as- 
sociates  were  also  among  the  latest.  With  one  or  two  of  the 
bosom  friends  of  his  youth,  he  kept  up  a  correspondence  by  letter 
for  thirty  years,  with  marks  of  continually  increasing  regard.  His 
sense  of  honor  was  high,  and  his  feelings  of  resentment  and  indig- 
nation occasionally  strong.  He  could,  however,  be  cool  when  his 
opponents  were  heated ;  and,  though  sometimes  surprised  by  pas- 
sion, yet  the  unparalleled  trials  of  patience  which  he  had  sustained 
did  not  render  him  petulant,  nor  did  his  strong  sense  of  the  injuries 
he  had  suffered  in  relation  to  the  cotton  gin,  impair  the  natural 
serenity  of  his  temper.  But  the  most  remarkable  trait  in  the  char- 
acter of  Mr.  Whitney  aside  from  his  inventive  powers,  was  his 
perseverance  ;  and  this  is  the  more  remarkable  because  it  is  so  com- 
mon to  find  men  of  great  powers  of  mechanical  invention  deficient 
in  this  quality.  This  it  was  which  led  him  through  scenes  of  trial 
and  almost  unparalleled  misfortune,  with  that  calm,  yet  determined 
spirit  which  he  so  clearly  manifested,  and  which  finally  led  him  to 
a  period  of  prosperity  from  which  he  was  snatched  only  by  the 
hand  of  death. 

In  person  Mr.  Whitney  was  considerably  above  the  ordinary 
size,  of  a  dignified  carriage,  and  of  an  open,  manly,  and  agreeable 
countenance.  Indeed,  he  seems  to  have  won  the  respect  of  all  with 
whom  he  conversed,  and  to  have  made  himself  friends  wherever  he 
went,  by  his  modest,  unassuming,  yet  agreeable  manners,  and  by 
his  superior  skill  and  ingenuity. 

In  presenting  to  the  public  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  life  of 
this  extraordinary  man,  the  aim  has  been  to  render  the  narrative 
useful  to  the  enterprising  mechanic  and  the  man  of  business,  to 
whom  Whitney  may  be  confidently  proposed  as  a  model.  To 
such,  it  is  believed,  the  details  given  respecting  his  various  strug- 
gles and  embarrassments,  may  afford  a  useful  lesson,  a  fresh  incen- 
tive to  perseverance,  and  stronger  impressions  of  the  value  of  a 
character  improved  by  intellectual  cultivation,  and  adorned  with 
all  the  moral  virtues. 

Fabrics  of  cotton  are  now  so  familiar  to  us,  and  so  universally 
diffused,  that  we  are  apt  to  look  upon  them  rather  as  original  gifts 
of  nature  than  as  recent  products  of  human  ingenuity.  The  fol- 
lowing statements  however  will  show  how  exceedingly  limited  the 
cotton  trade  was  previous  to  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin. 

In  1784,  an  American  vessel  arrived  at  Liverpool,  having  on 


134  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

board  for  part  of  her  cargo,  eight  lags  of  cotton,  which  were  seized 
by  the  officers  of  the  customhouse,  under  the  conviction  that  they 
could  not  be  the  growth  of  America.  The  following  fact  ascer- 
tained from  old  newspapers  shows  the  limited  extent  of  the  cotton 
trade  for  the  two  subsequent  years,  viz :  that  the  whole  amount 
arrived  at  Liverpool  from  America  was  short  of  120  bags.  Now 
this  article  is  equal  in  general  to  some  millions  more  than  one  half 
the  whole  value  of  our  exports.  The  annual  average  growth  is 
about  one  million  of  bales,  amounting  to  several  hundred  millions 
of  pounds,  of  which  about  one  fifth  is  used  in  our  own  manufac- 
tories. 

We  present,  in  conclusion,  the  following  remarks  of  a  distin- 
guished scholar,  upon  this  great  man,  occasioned  by  a  visit  to  the 
cemetery  of  New  Haven,  which  sufficiently  show  in  what  estima- 
tion he  is  held  by  those  capable  of  appreciating  his  merits. 

After  alluding  to  the  monument  of  Gen.  Humphreys,  who  intro- 
duced the  firm  wooled  sheep  into  the  United  States,  the  stranger 
remarks :  "  But  Whitney's  monument  perpetuates  the  name  of  a 
still  greater  public  benefactor.  His  simple  name  would  have  been 
epitaph  enough,  with  the  addition  perhaps  of  4  the  inventor  of  the 
cotton  gin.'  How  few  of  the  inscriptions  in  Westminster  Abbey 
could  be  compared  with  that !  Who  is  there  that,  like  him,  has 
given  his  country  a  machine — the  product  of  his  own  skill — which 
has  furnished  a  large  part  of  its  population,  *  from  childhood  to  age, 
with  a  lucrative  employment ;  by  which  their  debts  have  been  paid 
off;  their  capitals  increased ;  their  lands  trebled  in  value  ?'*  It 
may  be  said  indeed  that  this  belongs  to  the  physical  and  material 
nature  of  man,  and  ought  not  to  be  compared  with  what  has  been 
done  by  the  intellectual  benefactors  of  mankind ;  the  Miltons,  the 
Shakspeares,  and  the  Newtons.  But  is  it  quite  certain  that  any 
thing  short  of  the  highest  intellectual  vigor — the  brightest  genius — 
is  sufficient  to  invent  one  of  these  extraordinary  machines  1  Place 
a  common  mind  before  an  oration  of  Cicero  and  a  steam  engine, 
and  it  will  despair  of  rivalling  the  latter  as  much  as  the  former  ; 
and  we  can  by  no  means  be  persuaded,  that  the  peculiar  aptitude 
for  combining  and  applying  the  simple  powers  of  mechanics,  so  as 
to  produce  these  marvellous  operations,  does  not  imply  a  vivacity 
of  the  imagination,  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  poet  and  the  orator." 
And  in  concluding  he  asks,—"  Has  not  he  who  has  trebled  the  value 
of  land,  created  capital,  rescued  the  population  from  the  necessity 
of  emigrating,  and  covered  a  waste  with  plenty — has  not  he  done 

*  The  words  of  Mr.  Justice  Johnson  of  South  Carolina,  in  the  opinion  in  the 
case  of  Whitney  versus  Carter. 


ELI  WHITNEY.  135 

a  service  to  the  country  of  the  highest  moral  and  intellectual  char- 
acter ?  Prosperity  is  the  parent  of  civilization,  and  all  its  refine- 
ments  ;  and  every  family  of  prosperous  citizens  added  to  the  com- 
munity, is  an  addition  of  so  many  thinking,  inventing,  moral,  and 
immortal  natures." 

His  tomb  is  after  the  model  of  that  of  Scipio  at  Rome.  It  is 
simple  and  beautiful,  and  promises  to  endure  for  years.  It  bears 
the  following  inscription. 

ELI  WHITNEY, 

The  inventor  of  the  Cotton  Gin. 
Of  useful  science  and  arts,  the  efficient  patron  and  improver. 

In  the  social  relations  of  life,  a  model  of  excellence. 

While  private  affection  weeps  at  his  tomb,  his  country  honors  his  memory. 

Born  Dec.  8,  1765.— Died  Jan.  8, 1825. 


DAVID  BUSHNELL, 

THE  ORIGINATOR  OF  SUBMARINE  WARFARE. 


Early  attempts  at  submarine  navigation. — Drebell's  boat. — The  invention  of  an 
Englishman,  for  entering  sunken  ships. — Worcester. — Birth  of  Bushnell. — 
Early  Character. — Receives  a  collegiate  education. — Account  of  his  first  ex- 
periments.— Description  of  his  submarine  boat,  and  magazine. — Endeavors  to 
blow  up  the  British  ship  of  war  Eagle  in  the  harbor  of  New  York. — Blows  up 
the  tender  of  his  Majesty's  ship  Cerberus,  off  New  London. — Contrives  a  new 
expedient  to  destroy  the  British  shipping  in  the  Delaware. — "  Battle  of  the 
Kegs." — Dejected  at  the  issue  of  his  experiments,  leaves  for  France. — Returns 
and  settles  in  Georgia.— His  Death. 

SINCE  the  invention  of  the  diving  bell  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
we  have  accounts  of  several  projects  for  submarine  navigation, 
among  which  the  following  are  most  prominent.  "  A  scheme  is  said 
to  have  been  tried  in  the  reign  of  James  the  First,  by  Cornelius 
Drebell,  a  famous  English  projector,  who,  we  are  told  by  Mr.  Boyle, 
made  a  submarine  vessel  which  would  carry  twelve  rowers,  be- 
sides the  passengers ;  and  that  he  also  discovered  a  liquid  which 
had  the  singular  property  of  restoring  the  air  when  it  became  im- 
pure by  breathing.  This  last  circumstance,  with  the  number  of 
persons  enclosed  in  the  machine  and  the  imperfect  state  of  mechan- 
ics at  the  period  alluded  to,  renders  the  whole  story  extremely  im- 
probable, though  it  shows  clearly  that  the  idea  had  been  entertained 
and  perhaps  some  attempt  made.  Another  contrivance  is  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Martin,  in  his  Philosophia  Britannica,  as  the  inven- 
tion of  an  Englishman,  consisting  of  strong  thick  leather,  which 
contained  half  a  hogshead  of  air,  so  prepared  that  none  could 
escape,  and  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  exactly  fitted  the 
arms  and  legs,  and  had  a  glass  placed  in  the  fore  part  of  it.  When 
he  put  on  this  apparatus  he  could  not  only  walk  on  the  ground  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  but  also  enter  the  cabin  of  a  sunken  ship  and 
convey  goods  out  of  it  at  pleasure.  The  inventor  is  said  to  have 
carried  on  his  business  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  to  have  grown 
rich  by  it." 

It  is  evident  from  the  perusal  of  the  following  pages,  that  the 
plans  of  Bushnell  were  almost  entirely  original ;  and  he  appears  to 


DAVID  BUSHNELL.  137 

have  greatly  advanced,  if  not  actually  to  have  originated,  submarine 
navigation.  In  its  application  as  a  means  of  warfare,  we  must  give 
him  the  entire  credit  of  originality ;  although  Worcester  in  his 
Century  or  Hundred  of  Inventions,  vaguely  alludes  to  something 
of  the  kind,  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  application,  and  as  far  as 
regards  benefits  to  subsequent  experiments,  it  is  entirely  useless. 

The  efforts  of  Bushnell  in  the  revolutionary,  and  of  Fulton  during 
the  late  war,  at  the  time  attracted  considerable  attention,  and  greatly 
excited  the  fears*  of  the  enemy.  Although,  for  obvious  reasons, 
the  anticipated  success  did  not  attend  these  experiments,  we  must 
remember  that  "  invention  is  progressive ;"  and  while  we  hear 
them  derided  as  visionary,  we  should  reflect  that  such  has  ever 
been  the  fate,  in  their  incipient  stages,  of  the  most  useful  inventions. 
The  day  may  not  be  far  distant,  when  another  Bushnell  will  arise 
to  advance  submarine  warfare  to  such  perfection  as  to  render  it  an 
important  auxiliary  in  coast  defence. 

David  Bushnell  was  born  in  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  some  time 
about  the  year  1742.  His  parents  were  agriculturists  of  rather 
moderate  circumstances,  and  resided  in  a  very  secluded  part  of  the 
town.  Here  in  attendance  upon  the  duties  of  the  paternal  farm 
young  Bushneli  passed  the  earlier  portion  of  his  life,  and  is  only 
remembered  as  being  a  very  modest,  retiring  young  man,  shunning 
all  society,  and  bound  down  to  his  books. 

On  the  death  of  his  father,  which  happened  when  he  was  about 
twenty-seven  years  of  age,  Bushnell  sold  his  inheritance  and  re- 
moved  to  the  central  portion  of  the  town  for  the  purpose  of  prepar- 
ing for  college, — the  attainment  of  a  liberal  education  having  long 
been  with  him  an  object  of  his  most  ardent  wishes.  As  is  custom* 
ary  in  the  New  England  villages,  the  pastor  of  the  society,  the 
Rev.  John  Devotion,  assisted  him  in  his  studies. 

One  of  his  fellow  townsmen  Mr.  Elias  Tully,  becoming  ac. 
quainted  with  him  and  admiring  his  character,  very  generously 
offered  him  a  home  under  his  own  roof,  where  he  remained  until 
his  entrance  into  Yale  college  in  1771. 

We  are  ignorant  of  the  origin  of  Mr.  BushnelPs  conceptions  re- 
specting  submarine  warfare,  but  he  appears  to  have  turned  his  at. 
tention  to  the  subject  in  the  earlier  portions  of  his  collegiate  career, 
so  that  on  graduating  in  1775,  his  plans  were  advanced  to  ma- 
turity. 

*  It  is  well  known  that  during  the  experiments  of  Fulton,  the  British  ship- 
ping were  very  cautious  in  approaching  our  shores.  A  gentleman,  who  was 
taken  prisoner  by  a  vessel  of  war  in  Long  Island  Sound,  describes  the  anxiety  of 
the  officers  as  being  so  great,  that  they  made  a  regular  practice  at  certain  times 
of  day,  of  dragging  ropes  under  the  ship's  bottom.  This  course,  it  is  believed, 
was  universally  practised  by  the  enemy  while  anchoring  off  our  coast. 


138  AMERICAN    MECHANICS. 

"  The  first  experiment  was  made  with  about  two  ounces  of  gun- 
powder, to  prove  to  some  influential  men  that  powder  would  burn 
under  water.  In  the  second  trial  there  were  two  pounds  of  gun. 
powder  enclosed  in  a  wooden  bottle,  and  fixed  under  a  hogshead, 
with  a  two  inch  oak  plank  between  the  hogshead  and  the  powder. 
The  hogshead  was  loaded  with  stones  as  deep  as  it  could  swim ; 
a  wooden  pipe  primed  with  powder  descended  through  the  lower 
head  of  the  hogshead,  and  thence  through  the  plank  into  the  powder 
contained  in  the  bottle.  A  match  put  to  the  priming  exploded  the 
powder  with  a  tremendous  effect,  casting  a  great  body  of  water 
with  the  stones  and  ruins  many  feet  into  the  air. 

"  He  subsequently  made  many  experiments  of  a  similar  nature, 
some  of  them  with  large  quantities  of  powder,  all  of  which  produced 
very  violent  explosions,  much  more  than  sufficient  for  any  purposes 
he  had  in  view. 

"  When  finished,  the  external  appearance  of  his  torpedo  bore 
some  resemblance  to  two  upper  tortoise  shells  of  equal  size,  placed 
in  contact,  leaving,  at  that  part  which  represents  the  head  of  the 
animal,  a  flue  or  opening  sufficiently  capacious  to  contain  the  ope- 
rator,  and  air  to  support  him  thirty  minutes.  At  the  bottom,  op. 
posite  to  the  entrance,  was  placed  a  quantity  of  lead  for  ballast. 
The  operator  sat  upright  and  held  an  oar  for  rowing  forward  or 
backward,  and  was  furnished  with  a  rudder  for  steering.  An  ap- 
erture at  the  bottom  with  its  valve  admitted  water  for  the  purpose 
of  descending,  and  two  brass  forcing  pumps  served  to  eject  the 
water  within  when  necessary  for  ascending.  The  vessel  was  made 
completely  water-tight,  furnished  with  glass  windows  for  the  admis- 
sion of  light,  with  ventilators  and  air  pipes,  and  was  so  ballasted 
with  lead  fixed  at  the  bottom  as  to  render  it  solid,  and  obviate  all 
danger  of  oversetting.  Behind  the  submarine  vessel  was  a  place 
above  the  rudder  for  carrying  a  large  powder  magazine  ;  this  was 
made  of  two  pieces  of  oak  timber,  large  enough,  when  hollowed  out, 
to  contain  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  powder,  with  the  appa- 
ratus used  for  firing  it,  and  was  secured  in  its  place  by  a  screw 
turned  by  the  operator.  It  was  lighter  than  water,  that  it  might 
rise  against  the  object  to  which  it  was  intended  to  be  fastened. 

"  Within  the  magazine  was  an  apparatus  constructed  to  run  any 
proposed  period  under  twelve  hours  ;  when  it  had  run  out  its  turn, 
it  unpinioned  a  strong  lock,  resembling  a  gun-lock,  which  gave  fire 
to  the  powder.  This  apparatus  was  so  pinioned,  that  it  could  not 
possibly  move,  until,  by  casting  off  the  magazine  from  the  vessel, 
it  was  set  in  motion.  The  skilful  operator  could  swim  so  low  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  as  to  approach  very  near  a  ship  in  the 
night,  without  fear  of  being  discovered  j  and  might,  if  he  chose, 


DAVID  BUSHNELL;  139 

approach  the  stem  or  stern  above  water,  with  very  little  danger. 
He  could  sink  very  quickly,  keep  at  any  necessary  depth,  and  row 
a  great  distance  in  any  direction  he  desired  without  coming  to  the 
surface.  When  he  rose  to  the  top  ho  could  soon  obtain  a  fresh 
supply  of  air,  and,  if  necessary,  descend  again  and  pursue  his 
course. 

"  Mr.  Bushnell  found  that  it  required  many  trials  and  considera- 
ble instruction  to  make  a  man  of  common  ingenuity  a  skilful  ope- 
rator.  The  first  person  whom  he  employed  was  his  brother,  who 
was  exceedingly  ingenious,  and  made  himself  master  of  it,  but  was 
taken  sick  before  he  had  an  opportunity  to  make  a  trial  of  his  skill. 
Having  procured  for  a  substitute  a  sergeant  of  one  of  the  Connec. 
ticut  regiments,  and  given  him  such  instructions  as  time  would 
allow,  he  was  directed  to  try  an  experiment  on  the  Eagle,  a  sixty- 
four  gun  ship,  lying  in  the  harbor  of  New  York,  and  commanded 
by  Lord  Howe.  Gen.  Putnam  placed  himself  on  the  wharf  to 
witness  the  result. 

"  The  sergeant  went  under  the  ship  and  attempted  to  fix  the 
wooden  screw  into  her  bottom,  but  struck,  as  he  supposed,  a"  bar  of 
iron,  which  passed  from  the  rudder  hinge,  and  was  spiked  under  the 
ship's  quarter.  Had  he  moved  a  few  inches,  which  might  have 
been  done  without  rowing,  there  is  no  doubt  he  might  have 
found  wood  where  he  could  have  fixed  the  screw ; — or  if  the  ship 
had  been  sheathed  with  copper,  it  might  easily  have  been  pierced. 
But  for  want  of  skill  and  experience  in  managing  the  vessel,  in  an 
attempt  to  move  to  another  place,  he  passed  out  from  under  the 
ship.  After  seeking  her  in  vain  for  some  time,  he  rowed  some 
distance  and  rose  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  found  daylight 
so  far  advanced  that  he  dared  not  to  renew  the  attempt,  for  fear  of 
being  discovered  by  the  sentinels  on  duty.  He  said  he  could  easily 
have  fastened  the  magazine  under  the  stern  of  the  ship,  above 
water,  as  he  rowed  up  and  touched  it  before  he  descended.  Had 
it  been  done,  the  explosion  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of 
powder,  contained  in  the  magazine,  must  have  been  fatal  to  the 
ship. 

"  In  returning  from  the  ship  to  New  York,  the  operator  passed 
near  Governor's  Island,  and  thought  he  was  discovered  by  the  Bri- 
tish stationed  there.  In  haste  to  avoid  the  danger,  he  cast  off  his 
magazine,  imagining  it  retarded  him  in  the  swell,  which  was  very 
considerable.  The  internal  apparatus  was  set  to  run  just  one  hour  ; 
at  the  expiration  of  the  allotted  time  it  blew  up  with  tremendous 
violence,  throwing  a  vast  column  of  water  to  an  amazing  height  in 
the  air,  much  to.  the  astonishment  of  the  enemy. 

"Some  other  attempts  were  made  on  the  Hudson,  in  one  of 


140  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

which  the  operator  in  going  towards  the  ship  lost  sight  of  her, 
and  went  a  great  distance  beyond.  The  tide  ran  so  strong  as  to 
baffle  all  further  effort. 

"In  the  year  1777,  Mr.  Bushnell  made  an  attempt  from  a  whale- 
boat  against  the  Cerberus  frigate,  lying  at  anchor  off  New  London, 
in  drawing  a  machine  against  her  side  by  means  of  a  line.  The 
machine  was  loaded  with  powder  to  be  exploded  by  a  gun-lock, 
which  was  to  be  unpinioned  by  an  apparatus  to  be  turned  by  being 
brought  along  side  of  the  frigate.  This  machine  fell  in  with  a 
schooner  at  anchor  astern  of  the  frigate,  and  becoming  fixed,  it  ex- 
ploded and  demolished  the  vessel, 

"Commodore  Simmons  being  on  board  of  the  Cerberus,  addressed 
an  official  letter  to  Sir  Peter  Parker,  describing  this  singular  dis- 
aster. Being  at  anchor  to  the  westward  of  the  town  with  a  schooner 
which  he  had  taken,  about  eleven  o'clock  in  the  evening  he  disco- 
vered a  line  towing  astern  from  the  bows.  He  believed  that  some 
person  had  veered  away  by  it,  and  immediately  began  to  haul  in. 
A  sailor  belonging  to  the  schooner  taking  it  for  a  fishing  line,  laid 
hold  of  it  and  drew  in  about  fifteen  fathoms.  It  was  buoyed  up  by 
small  pieces  tied  to  it  at  regular  distances.  At  the  end  of  the  rope 
a  machine  was  fastened  too  heavy  for  one  man  to  pull  up,  for  it 
exceeded  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight.  The  other  people  of  the 
schooner  coming  to  his  assistance,  they  drew  it  upon  deck.  While 
the  men,  to  gratify  their  curiosity,  were  examining  the  machine,  it 
exploded,  blew  the  vessel  into  pieces,  and  set  her  on  fire.  Three 
men  were  killed,  and  a  fourth  blown  into  the  water,  much  injured. 
On  subsequent  examination  the  other  part  of  the  line  was  discovered 
buoyed  up  in  the  same  manner  ;  this  the  commodore  ordered  to  be 
instantly  cut  away,  for  fear  (as  he  termed  it)  of  *  hauling  up  another 
of  the  infernals  /' 

"  These  machines  were  constructed  with  wheels  furnished  with 
irons  sharpened  at  the  end,  and  projecting  about  an  inch,  in  order 
to  strike  the  sides  of  the  vessel  when  hauling  them  up,  thereby  set- 
ting the  wheels  in  motion,  which  in  the  space  of  five  minutes  causes 
the  explosion.  Had  the  whole  apparatus  been  brought  to  act  upon 
a  ship  at  the  same  time,  it  must  have  occasioned  prodigious  de- 
struction. 

"  Mr.  Bushnell  contrived  another  ingenious  expedient  to  effect 
his  favorite  object.  He  fixed  a  large  number  of  kegs,  charged 
with  powder,  to  explode  on  coming  in  contact  with  any  thing  while 
floating  along  with  the  tide. 

"  In  December,  1777,  he  set  his  squadron  of  kegs  afloat  in  the 
Delaware  above  the  British  shipping.  The  kegs  were  set  adrift 


DESTRUCTION    OF    A   BRITISH   TENDER    BY 
A    TORPEDO. 


DAVID  BUSHNELL. 


143 


in  the  night,  to  fall  with  the  ebb  on  the  shipping ;  but  the  proper 
distance  could  not  be  well  ascertained,  and  they  were  set  adrift 
too  remotely  from  the  vessels,  so  that  they  were  obstructed  and 
dispersed  by  the  ice.  They  approached,  however,  in  the  day. 
time,  and  one  of  them  blew  up  a  boat,  others  exploded,  and  occa- 
sioned the  greatest  consternation  and  alarm  among  the  British 
seamen.  The  British  soldiers  actually  manned  the  wharves  and 
shipping  at  Philadelphia,  and  discharged  their  small  arms  and 
cannon  at  every  thing  they  could  see  floating  in  the  river  during 
the  ebb  tide.  This  incident  has  received  the  name  of  *  the  Bailie 
of  the  Kegs^  and  has  furnished  the  subject  of  an  excellent  and 
humorous  song  by  the  Hon.  Francis  Hopkinson,  which,  as  it  is  an 
amusing  relic  of  the  times,  we  here  insert." 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  KEGS :— A  SONG. 

TUNE—"  Moggy  Lawder." 


GALLANTS  attend,  and  hear  a  friend 
Trill  forth  harmonious  ditty  ; 

Strange  things  I'll  tell,  which  late  befell 
In  Philadelphia  city. 

'Twas  early  day,  as  poets  say, 
Just  when  the  sun  was  rising, 

A  soldier  stood  on  log  of  wood, 
And  saw  a  sight  surprising. 

As  in  amaze  he  stood  to  gaze, — 
The  truth  can't  be  denied, — 

He  spied  a  score  of  kegs,  or  more, 
Come  floating  down  the  tide. 

A  sailor  too,  in  jerkin  blue, 
The  strange  appearance  viewing, 

First  "  d— d  his  eyes,"  in  great  surprise, 
Then  said, "  some  mischief's  brewing: 

41  These  kegs  now  hold  the  rebels  bold, 
Pack'd  up  like  pickled  herring ; 

And  they're  comedown  t'attackthe  town 
In  this  new  way  of  ferrying." 

The  soldier  flew, — the  sailor  too, — 
And  almost  scared  to  death, 

Wore  out  their  shoes  to  spread  the  news, 
And  ran  till  out  of  breath. 

Now  up  and  down ,  throughout  the  town, 
Most  frantic  scenes  were  acted ; 

And  some  ran  here  and  some  ran  there 
Like  men  almost  distracted. 


Some  fire!  cried,  which  some  denied, 
But  said,  the  earth  had  quaked: 

And  girls  and  boys,  with  hideous  noise, 
Ran  through  the  streets,  half  naked. 

HOWE,  ia  a  fright,  starts  upright, 

Awoke  by  such  a  clatter  ; 
Rubbing  both  eyes,  he  loudly  cries, 

"  For  God's  sake,  what's  the  matter?" 

At  his  bedside  he  then  espied 

Sir  ERSKINE  at  command; 
Upon  one  foot  he  had  one  boot, 

And  t'other  in  his  hand. 

"  Arise !  arise !"  Sir  ERSKINE  cries ; 

"  The  rebels — more's  the  pity — 
Without  a  boat  are  all  afloat, 

And  rang'd  before  the  city ; 

"  The  motley  crew,  in  vessels  new, 
With  SATAN  for  their  guide, 

Pack'd  up  in  bags,  or  wooden  kegs, 
Come  driving  down  the  tide ; 

"  Therefore  prepare  for  bloody  war; 

These  kegs  must  all  be  routed, 
Or  surely  we  despised  shall  be, 

And  British  courage  doubted." 

The  royal  band  now  ready  stand, 

All  rang'd  in  dread  array, 
With  stomachs  stout,  to  see  it  out, 

And  make  a  bloody  day. 


144 


AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 


The  cannons  roar  from  shore  to  shore, 
The  small  arms  make  a  rattle ; 

Since  war  began,  I'm  sure  no  man 
Ere  saw  so  strange  a  battle : 

The  rebel  vales,  the  rebel  dales, 
With  rebel  trees  surrounded ; 

The  distant  woods,  the  hills  and  floods, 
With  rebel  echoes  sounded. 

The  fish  below  swam  to  and  fro, 
Attack'd  from  every  quarter ; 

"  Why  sure,"  thought  they,  "  the  devil's 

to  pay 
'Mongst  folks  above  the  water." 

The  kegs,  'tis  said,  though  strongly  made 
Of  rebel  staves  and  hoops, 


Could  not  oppose  their  pow'rful  foes, 
The  conq'ring  British  troops. 

From  morn  to  night,  these  men  of 
might 

Display'd  amazing  courage : 
And  when  the  sun  was  fairly  down, 

lletir'd  to  sup  their  porridge. 

A  hundred  men,  with  each  a  pen, 

Or  more,  upon  my  word, 
It  is  most  true,  would  be  too  few 

Their  valor  to  record : 

Such  feats  did  they  perform  that  day 

Upon  those  wicked  kegs, 
That  years  to  come,  if  they  get  home, 

They'll  make  their  boast  and  brags. 


The  unfortunate  issue  of  Mr.  Bushnell's  efforts  rendered  him 
very  dejected.  He  had  been  disappointed  in  his  expected  support 
from  government,  having  spent  nearly  all,  if  not  the  whole  of  his 
own  property  in  the  course  of  his  experiments.  Soon  after  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  left  his  native  country  for  France.  The 
object  of  this  voyage  is  not  known  ;  and  it  was  always  supposed, 
until  within  a  very  short  time,  that  he  had  perished  amid  some  one 
of  the  sanguinary  scenes  of  the  French  revolution.  But  it  appears 
that,  after  remaining  in  Europe  a  number  of  years,  he  returned 
and  settled  in  Georgia,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Bush,  where 
he  lived  in  a  retired  manner,  gaining  his  livelihood  by  the  practice 
of  medicine.  The  tidings  of  his  death,  in  1826,  accompanied  by 
a  handsome  bequest,  the  product  of  his  professional  industry,  was 
the  first  information  his  relations  had  received  of  him  for  a  period 
of  nearly  forty  years. 


AMOS  WHITTEMORE. 


AMOS  WHITTEMORE, 

THE  INVENTOR  OF  THE   CARD  MACHINE. 


Birth, — Early  traits  of  character. — Is  apprenticed  to  a  gunsmith. — Industry. — 
Constructs  a  wooden  clock  without  a  model. — Invents  a  machine  for  measur- 
ing the  progress  of  vessels. — Becomes  a  partner  in  manufacturing  cotton  and 
wool  cards. — Description  and  imperfection  of  the  old  method  of  making  cards. — 
Sets  about  the  construction  of  the  card  machine. — Wonderful  perseverance. — 
Meets  with  an  unexpected  obstacle. — Overcomes  the  difficulty  in  a  dream. — Com- 
pletes the  invention. — Its  beauty  and  precision. — Secures  the  patent. — Visits 
England,  to  secure  a  patent  there. — Taken  prisoner  by  a  French  man-of-war. — 
Release. — Dyer's  card  establishment  at  Manchester. — Return. — Forms  a  co- 
partnership to  manufacture  card  machines. — Slow  progress  and  exhausted 
means. — Visits  Washington,  and  exhibits  the  invention. — It  excites  universal 
admiration. — Congress  renews  the  patent. — Establish  a  branch  in  New  York. 
— The  New  York  Manufacturing  Company  purchase  their  whole  interest. — 
Its  succeeding  history. — Phoanix  Bank. — Singular  chain  of  circumstances. — 
Whittemore  purchases  a  country  seat,  and  retires  from  active  life. — Projects 
an  orrery  on  a  new  plan. — Feeble  health. — Death. — Character. — Value  of  the 
card  machine. — Conclusion. 

THE  incidents  in  the  following  memoir  are  principally  such  as 
could  be  gathered  from  the  memory  of  one  who  intimately  knew 
the  subject  of  it  while  living,  and  always  entertained  for  him  and 
his  memory  a  high  regard.  The  writer  therefore  feels  some  diffi- 
dence in  recording  as  strict  fact,  every  part  of  the  relation  made 
to  him,  inasmuch  as  the  lapse  of  years  may  have  effaced  in  some 
degree  the  recollection  of  many  of  the  events.  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  its  leading  features  are  essentially  correct,  and  as  noth- 
ing stated  can  affect  others,  he  feels  relieved  'from  responsibility. 

Amos  Whittemore,  who,  by  his  extraordinary  invention  for 
making  cotton  and  wool  cards,  merits  a  prominent  place  among  the 
first  mechanics  of  the  age,  was  the  second  of  five  brothers,  and 
was  born  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  April  19th,  1759.  His 
father  was  an  agriculturist  of  but  moderate  means,  whose  industry 
enabled  him  to  rear  a  large  family,  and  give  to  his  children  the 
mere  rudiments  of  an  English  education.  Of  the  five  brothers,  it 
is  unnecessary  to  allude  to  either  than  the  two  next  in  age,  William 
and  Samuel,  who,  as  will  appear  in  the  sequel,  became  interested 
in  business  with  that  brother  whose  ingenuity  laid  the  foundation 
of  their  fortunes. 

The  youthful  days  of  Whittemore  were  passed  in  the  usual 
manner  of  lads  in  the  country,  chiefly  in  assisting  his  parent  in 

11 


148  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

the  cultivation  of  the  farm.  At  an  early  age  he  manifested  a  re- 
markable  talent  for  mechanical  pursuits,  together  with  a  mind  dis- 
posed to  the  contemplation  of  philosophical  and  abstruse  science. 

Aware  that  he  must  depend  almost  entirely  upon  his  own  re- 
sources, not  only  for  his  maintenance,  but  for  his  future  advance- 
ment, it  was  obvious  that  he  must  soon  choose  a  profession  which 
would  promote  these  ends.  Free  to  make  his  own  choice,  he  se- 
lected the  trade  of  a  gunsmith,  as  one  which,  while  it  presented  a 
field  for  the  cultivation  of  mechanical  taste,  offered  the  prospects 
of  a  fruitful  harvest. 

On  becoming  an  apprentice,  he  not  only  zealously  applied  him- 
self to  the  interests  of  his  master,  but  devoted  his  leisure  to  volun- 
tary employment.  At  this  period  he  invented  many  ingenious  and 
useful  implements ;  and  such  was  his  proficiency,  that  long  ere  the 
expiration  of  his  term  of  service,  his  employer  confessed  himself 
unable  to  give  further  instruction,  and  advised  him  to  commence 
business  for  himself. 

Among  the  many  instances  of  his  skill,  may  be  noticed  that  of 
an  excellent  clock  made  without  a  model,  which  remained  many 
years  in  the  family,  proving  a  useful,  as  well  as  gratifying  me- 
mento of  his  early  ingenuity.  This  was  among  the  first  of  the 
kind,  although  now  there  is  scarcely  a  cottage  in  our  wide  spread 
country  that  does  not  boast  of  at  least  one  of  these  indispensable 
as  well  as  ornamental  pieces  of  furniture.  He  also  invented  a 
machine  constructed  with  dial  hands  and  figures,  to  be  placed  in 
the  water  at  a  vessel's  stern,  for  the  purpose  of  accurately  mea- 
suring its  progress.  At  the  suggestion  of  a  medical  friend,  a 
Dr.  Putnam  of  Charlestown,  he  invented  a  self-acting  loom,  for 
weaving  duck,  which,  from  the  best  information  we  possess,  is 
believed  to  be  the  same  in  principle  as  the  celebrated  power  loom 
now  so  universally  used.  Owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  business 
at  this  period,  and  the  want  of  encouragement  in  the  useful  arts, 
these  productions,  notwithstanding  their  value,  were  suffered  to  lie 
neglected  and  forgotten. 

For  years  succeeding  the  expiration  of  his  apprenticeship, 
Whittemore  was  variously,  though  to  himself,  in  a  pecuniary  point, 
unprofitably  employed.  At  length  he  became  interested  with  his 
brother  William,  and  five  others,  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
wool  cards,  conducting  their  business  in  Boston  under  the  firm  of 
Giles,  Richards,  and  Co.,  and  supplying  nearly  all  the  cards  then 
used  in  the  country.  Amos  devoted  himself  to  the  mechanical 
department,  as  being  the  most  agreeable  and  useful. 

Hitherto,  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  wool  cards,  which  had 
already  become  an  article  of  great  demand,  was  attended  with 


AMOS  WHITTEMORE.  149 

much  expense,  owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  machinery,  and 
the  amount  of  manual  labor  required.  But  two  machines,  and 
those  of  simple  construction,  were  as  yet  known ;  one  for  cutting 
and  bending  the  wire  into  staples,  and  another  for  piercing  the 
sheets  of  leather  with  holes,  into  which  the  staples  were  placed, 
one  by  one,  with  the  hand.  This  last  operation  gave  employment 
to  hundreds  of  the  younger  members  of  families  in  New  England : 
and  it  was  not  unamusing  to  witness  groups  of  children,  of  both 
sexes,  engaged  in  this  easy  labor,  their  tiny  fingers  rapidly  placing 
staple  after  staple  into  its  appropriate  place,  as  eager  to  perform 
their  allotted  task  as  they  were  to  count  the  few  pence  earned  at 
the  dear  expense  of  a  temporary  deprivation  of  their  youthful 
sports.  This,  the  only  method  then  known,  combined  both  the 
disadvantage  of  great  expense  and  the  impossibility  of  making  the 
cards  sufficiently  perfect  to  properly  prepare  the  raw  material. 

Whittemore,  ever  bent  upon  improvements  in  machinery,  at 
once  saw  the  importance,  and,  of  course,  the  immense  value  of  a 
machine  so  constructed  as  to  be  enabled,  by  its  own  independent 
action,  to  hold  the  sheet  of  leather,  pierce  the  holes,  draw  the  wire 
from  the  reel,  and  shape  and  stick  it  into  its  proper  place :  thus, 
by  the  combination  of  a  series  of  successive  independent  opera- ' 
tions,  complete  the  card.  After  that  mature  reflection  which 
always  characterized  him,  he  imparted  to  his  brother  William 
the  conception  of  that  idea  which  he  so  ardently  desired  to  exe- 
cute. Encouraged  by  the  advice  and  assistance  of  this  brother, 
he  engaged  in  the  apparently  insurmountable  task,  well  convinced 
of  the  rich  reward  awaiting  him  if  he  could  but  embody  in  a 
machine  the  picture  of  his  imagination.  With  ardor  and  unre- 
mitting zeal  he  prosecuted  his  labors,  devoting  his  whole  mental 
and 'physical  energies  to  the  undertaking.  Such  was  his  diligence, 
and  so  incessantly  did  it  occupy  his  time,  that  he  not  only  impaired 
his  health,  but  frequently  neglected  the  demands  of  nature,  to  the 
extent  that  food  and  sleep  seemed  to  him  of  but  secondary  conse- 
quence. Slowly,  but  steadily  he  progressed  ;  and  while  his  bodily 
strength  daily  diminished,  the  fire  of  his  mind  seemed  to  burn  with 
increased  enthusiasm.  Like  the  discoverer  of  our  western  world, 
he  had  staked,  as  it  were,  his  reputation  upon  this  effort,  and, 
though  storms  of  discouragement  buffeted  him  at  every  point,  and 
a  boundless  sea  of  toil  appeared  between  him  and  his  uncertain 
haven,  yet  he  undauntingly  persevered  almost  against  hope. 

Baffled  as  was  his  skill  to  the  utmost,  he  at  length  so  far  com- 
pleted his  machine  as  to  cause  it  to  draw  the  wire  from  the  reel, 
cut  and  shape  it,  pierce  the  holes  in  the  leather,  and  even  place  the 
staples  firmly  in  the  sheet ;  but  it  was  yet  necessary  to  bend  the 


150  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

wire  after  it  was  placed  :  without  this,  all  was  in  vain ;  time  and 
health  had  been  valuelessly  sacrificed,  and  that  ambition  that  ever 
animates  to  action  the  inventive  mind,  seemed  in  him  about  to  re- 
ceive  a  fatal  check.  Notwithstanding  the  encouragement  of  his 
friends — who,  believing  that  he  could  finally  succeed,  were,  if  pos- 
sible, more  zealous  than  himself — he  gradually  became  irresolute, 
and  frequently  declared  his  inability  to  make  any  farther  progress. 

The  labor  of  nearly  three  months  lay  before  him,  an  unfinished, 
yet  wonderfully  ingenious  structure  ;  but,  like  the  famed  ivory  balls 
of  the  Chinese,  while  it  was  admirable  for  the  skill  displayed  in 
its  workmanship,  was  valueless.  Fortunately,  he  was  not  long 
doomed  to  look  upon  his  work  as  a  mere  monument  of  labor  lost. 
While  the  ingenuity  of  his  mind  had  in  vain  been  taxed  to  the  ut- 
most, it  was,  as  it  would  seem,  to  miraculous  interposition  that  he 
owed  his  ultimate  success.  Extraordinary  as  it  may  appear,  and 
doubted  as  it  may  be  by  some,  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  fact,  that  during 
a  night  succeeding  a  day  of  despondency  and  gloom,  and  at  an 
hour  when  his  faculties  were  wrapped  in  slumber,  in  a  vision  was 
disclosed  to  him  the  complete  accomplishment  of  his  hopes. 
Scarcely  had  the  following  day  dawned,  when,  with  a  heart  swell- 
ing with  emotions  of  eagerness  and  joy,  he  once  more  revisited 
the  chamber  where  he  had  so  earnestly  toiled,  and,  ere  he  broke 
his  fast  on  that  morning,  he  was  enabled  to  announce  to  his  brother 
and  friends  his  entire  success. 

Thus,  within  the  short  space  of  three  months,  he  had,  by  un- 
tiring industry,  commenced  and  completed  an  invention  which  at 
once  revolutionized  the  manufacture  of  cards,  and  which,  for  in- 
genuity of  construction,  precision  of  movement,  rapidity  of  per- 
formance, and  perfection  of  execution,  may  challenge  comparison 
with  any  mechanical  effort  of  the  human  mind.  It  must  be  studi- 
ously examined  to  be  justly  appreciated  ;  and,  with  a  distinguished 
man*  of  our  day, — one  alike  eminent  for  his  scientific  attainments 
as  for  his  accomplishments  as  a  statesman,— we  may  say,  that 
those  who  examine  its  complicated  performance  can  compare  it 
with  nothing  more  nearly  than  the  machinery  of  the  human  system. 

This  anecdote,  so  intimately  connected  with  the  invention,  was 
one  which  Whittemore  frequently  related,  and  it  was  gratifying  to 
observe  with  what  ardor  he  told  the  story  of  his  toil ;  upon  no  part 
of  which  would  he  dwell  with  more  enthusiastic  delight  than  this 
singular  dream. 

The  brothers,  fully  aware,  if  successful,  of  the  value  of  such  a 
machine,  had,  in  a  measure,  kept  secret  the  fact  of  Whittemore's 

*  Edward  Everett. 


AMOS   WH1TTEMORE.  151 

being  engaged  in  its  construction.  When,  therefore,  completed, 
steps  were  immediately  taken  to  secure  to  the  fortunate  inventor, 
and  his  associates,  the  pecuniary  advantages  to  be  derived ;  and 
on  the  2d  of  June,  1797,  a  patent  right  was  granted  for  a  term  of 
fourteen  years.  The  importance  of  securing  a  patent  right  in 
England,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  was  not  lost  sight  of. 
At  this  time,  during  the  administration  of  the  elder  Adams,  but 
few  years  had  elapsed  since  the  establishment  of  our  national  inde- 
pendence, and  the  relations  of  our  country  with  England  were  unset- 
tled, while  with  France  we  were  engaged  in  naval  hostilities.  To 
undertake  a  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  under  such  circumstances, 
and  at  this  early  period,  was  considered  of  almost  as  much  im- 
portance as,  in  our  time,  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  To  many 
of  the  habits  of  Whittemore,  the  project  of  visiting  England,  and 
there  to  wade  through  the  difficulties  of  securing  a  patent,  would 
have  been  thought  too  great  an  enterprise :  at  most,  that  the  ad- 
vantages to  accrue  would  not  be  commensurate  with  the  risk  and 
expenditure.  Not  so  thought  the  brothers  ;  and  the  requisite  ar- 
rangements being  made,  it  became  the  duty  as  well  as  pleasure 
of  Whittemore  to  visit  that  country.  At  this  period,  but  two  ships 
traded  regularly  between  Boston  and  London,  the  Galen  and  the 
Minerva ;  in  the  latter  of  which  he  embarked  in  the  spring  of 
1799,  accompanied  by  an  English  gentleman  named  Sharpe,  who 
evinced  great  interest  in  the  machine,  and  is  believed  to  have  been 
largely  benefited  by  it  in  England. 

Being  unacquainted  with  the  circumstances  connected  with  this 
visit,  it  is  out  of  our  power  to  give  a  detail  of  its  events ;  it  is 
sufficient,  however,-  to  know,  that  the  invention  soon  became  fully 
appreciated,  and  though  numerous  offers  were  made,  either  to  pur. 
chase  the  right  or  become  interested  in  its  profits,  nothing  of  con- 
sequence was  done  to  remunerate  the  inventor.  Anxious  to  re- 
turn, he  left  his  business  in  the  hands  of  those  in  whom  he  reposed 
confidence,  and  in  the  spring  of  1800  sailed  for  Boston,  where  he 
arrived  in  safety  after  a  passage  of  fifty-nine  days,  and  a  year's 
absence  from  home.  Either  on  his  outward  or  homeward  voyage, 
the  vessel  which  he  was  in  was  captured  by  the  French,  but  the 
passengers  were  released  without  serious  inconvenience. 

Justly  entitled  as  he  was  to  a  rich  reward  in  that  country,  which 
has  since  been  so  largely  benefited  by  this  invention,  he  was  de- 
spoiled of  his  rights,  and  realized  little  else  than  expense  and  labor. 

No  sooner  was  the  machine  generally  understood  in  England, 
than  it  was  perceived  how  fatal  its  successful  operation  would  be- 
come to  the  working  classes  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cards. 
The  greatest  caution  and  secrecy  were  therefore  observed,  lest  the 

11* 


152  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

threats  of  the  people,  to  mob  those  engaged  in  making  the  ma- 
chinery, would  be  carried  into  execution.  The  only  safe  method 
was,  to  have  parts  of  the  machine  made  in  different  places,  and 
put  together  when  finished. 

The  most  extensive,  if  not  the  only  establishment  now  in  opera- 
tion in  England  for  manufacturing  machine  cards,  is  that  of  Mr. 
Dyer,  in  Manchester,  who  has  conducted  the  business  with  great 
success ;  through  whose  agency  the  machinery  has  been  carried 
into  France  and  the  other  parts  of  the  continent,  and  is  even 
supposed  by  many  to  be  his  invention,  though  he  himself  acknow- 
ledges its  proper  source. 

The  copartnership  of  Giles,  Richards,  and  Co.  having  expired 
some  time,  Whittemore,  with  his  brother,  had  been  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  cards  upon  the  old  plan.  On  his  return  from 
England,  they  formed  a  connection  with  their  friend,  Mr.  Robert 
Williams,  of  Boston,  who  possessed  the  requisite  means  for  car- 
rying  on  the  business  with  the  improved  machinery,  though  on  a 
limited  scale. 

Until  the  year  1809,  little  had  been  done  beside  constructing 
expensive  machines,  and  making  the  necessary  preparations  for 
the  manufacture  of  cards.  The  patent  was  at  this  time  within 
two  years  of  its  expiration,  and  their  treasury  nearly  exhausted. 
Serious  apprehensions  were  therefore  entertained  that,  when  about 
to  realize  a  remuneration  for  their  time  and  expense,  others,  by 
successful  competition,  would  step  in  and  wrest  from  them  the 
fruits  of  all  their  toils. 

During  the  session  of  the  congress  of  1808  and  1809,  Whitte- 
more, with  his  brother  William,  visited  Washington,  carrying  with 
them  a  complete  machine,  of  full  size,  as  a  model  for  exhibition, 
which  was  shown  to  the  members  and  other  men  of  distinction. 
It  not  only  elicited  universal  admiration,  but  of  such  advantage 
was  it  considered  to  the  country,  especially  to  the  cotton  and 
wool-growing  interest,  that  many  members,  among  them  Matthew 
Lyon  of  Vermont,  a  gentleman  distinguished  for  his  abilities, 
were  disposed  to  grant  a  perpetual  patent  to  the  inventor  and 
his  heirs.  The  result,  however,  was,  that  on  the  3d  of  March, 
1809,  an  act  received  the  unanimous  vote  of  congress,  granting  a 
renewal  of  the  patent  for  fourteen  years  from  the  expiration  of  the 
first  term. 

The  city  of  New  York  had  long  since  given  evidence  of  its 
peculiar  advantages  for  trade  and  commerce  ;  and  as  early  as  the 
year  1803,  a  branch  of  the  business  was  established  in  that  city, 
under  the  management  of  a  younger  brother,  Mr.  Samuel  Whitte- 
more,  who  became  a  partner  with  the  brothers.  As  may  be 


AMOS  WHITTEMORE.  153 

readily  supposed,  the  importance  of  the  machine  attracted  no 
little  attention  among  the  enterprising  of  this  metropolis ;  and 
$oon  after  the  renewal  of  the  patent,  efforts  were  made  to  establish 
a  company,  with  a  capital  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  carry  on  an 
extensive  business,  and  thus  obtain  the  certain  profit  that  a  mono- 
poly such  as  this  seemed  to  ensure. 

Men  of  fortune  and  energy  gave  it  their  support ;  and  during 
;he  session  of  the  New  York  legislature  of  1812,  an  act  was  passed, 
ncorporating  the  "  New  York  Manufacturing  Company,"  with  a 
capital  of  about  $800,000,  of  which  $300,000  was  directed  to  be 
employed  in  manufacturing  cotton  and  wool  cards,  and  building 
he  necessary  machinery  and  factories,  while  the  balance  was  to 
>e  employed  in  banking. 

Among  the  first  acts  of  this  company,  was  to  purchase  of  the 
/tessrs.  Whittemore  their  patent  right  and  entire  stock  of  machine- 
y ;  which  was  effected  on  the  20th  of  July,  1812,  for  the  sum  of  one 
tundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  The  company  having  purchased 
•.  site  on  New  York  island,  commenced  the  erection  of  extensive 
vorks ;  and  the  usual  custom  in  public  buildings  of  laying  the  corner 
•tone,  was  here  observed  with  much  ceremony.  And  now  for  the 
irst  time,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  business  had  commenced  on  fa- 
vorable auspices,  so  far  as  capital  and  an  intelligent  direction  was 
\  guarantee  of  success. 

Our  country,  being  at  this  time  engaged  in  an  active,  and  to  our 
commerce,  a  destructive  warfare  with  England,  a  country  that  had 
ilways  supplied  us  with  cotton  and  woollen,  as  well  as  other  goods, 
i  check,  if  not  a  total  suspension,  was  thus  placed  upon  farther  im- 
portations, and  the  manufacture  of  these  fabrics  was  thrown  upon 
ourselves.  Cotton  and  woollen  factories  were  erected  as  if  by  the 
magic  of  Aladdin's  lamp,  and  they,  with  the  demand  from  all  parts 
of  the  country  for  hand  cards,  gave  such  an  impetus  to  the  business 
that  the  company  were  most  actively  and  profitably  engaged. 

But  the  peace  of  1815,  an  event,  so  much  and  so  devoutly  wished 
for  by  our  suffering  country,  proved  injurious  to  the  association. 
Sudden  and  immense  importations  of  foreign  goods  followed  this 
event,  and  such  was  the  insufficient  protection  then  afforded  to  do- 
mestic industry,  and  so  great  was  the  demand  for  the  raw  material 
abroad,  that  our  infant  manufactories  were  compelled  to  stop,  and 
scarcely  a  pound  of  cottoji  or  wool  remained  at  home.  The  com- 
pany thus  found  themselves  with  a  large  stock  of  machinery  and 
cards,  and  no  market.  In  the  year  1818,  after  waiting  in  vain  for 
a  reaction,  and  the  business  being  doubtless  shackled  by  the  un- 
wieldy management  of  a  corporation,  the  company  proposed  and 
effected  a  sale  of  its  entire  manufacturing  property  to  Messrs. 


154  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

Samuel  and  Timothy  Whittemore,  the  former  a  brother,  the  latter 
a  son  of  the  inventor.  Mr.  Timothy  Whittemore  almost  immedi- 
ately thereafter  relinquished  his  interest  to  his  uncle,  who  became 
the  sole  proprietor,  and  conducted  the  business  with  varied  success 
until  within  a  few  years.  The  New  York  manufacturing  company, 
after  this  sale,  with  an  increased  capital,  changed  its  title  to  that  of 
the  "  Phoenix  Bank,"  and  continues  to  this  day  a  popular  banking 
institution. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  patent  in  1825,  Mr.  Samuel  Whittemore 
sold  several  of  his  machines  in  anticipation  of  a  rapid  decline  in 
the  business,  since  the  monopoly  could  no  longer  be  retained  ;  and 
from  that  time  the  manufacture  of  cards  by  machinery  has  become 
so  general,  as  to  make  it  a  business  of  comparatively  small  amount 
to  any,  but  to  a  few  old  established  firms.  By  a  singular,  though 
interesting  chain  of  circumstances,  the  identical  machines  which 
the  inventor  himself  assisted  in  building,  after  being  out  of  his  family 
for  more  than  twenty-five  years,  have  now  become  the  property  of 
his  sons,  and  are  used  by  them  in  West  Cambridge,  a  small  town  near 
that  which  gave  him  birth.  Their  cards  are  well  known  for  their 
uniform  excellence,  the  stamp  being  to  the  consumer  a  sufficient 
guarantee  of  their  quality. 

Although  more  than  forty  years  have  elapsed  since  the  invention, 
such  was  the  perfection  with  which  it  came  from  the  rnind  of  the 
inventor,  that  no  essential  improvements  have  ever  been  suggested. 
Attempts  were  frequently  made  to  defraud  him  of  his  well-earned 
fame,  by  claiming  it  as  the  production  of  others,  but  they  have 
proved  as  abortive  as  the  attempts  to  infringe  upon  the  patent. 

After  the  sale  of  his  interest,  Whittemore  retired  from  active 
life,  and  having  purchased  a  pleasant  estate  in  the  town  of  West 
Cambridge,  found  that  quiet  and  freedom  from  the  many  cares 
of  business  life,  so  agreeable  to  his  nature.  Since  the  invention,  he 
never  seriously  exerted  his  mechanical  ingenuity,  feeling,  doubtless, 
content  with  the  laurels  already  acquired.  Having,  however,  in 
early  life  entertained  a  deep  interest  in  the  science  of  astronomy, 
in  later  years  he  conceived  the  plan  of  a  complete  orrery,  repre- 
senting the  whole  planetary  system,  each  planet  to  describe  its  own 
orbit,  and  the  combination  acting  like  nature's  own.  Enfeebled  by 
an  impaired  health,  and  the  infirmities  of  age,  he  never  matured 
this  project,  and  at  length  he  died,  in  the  year  1828,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-nine,  at  his  residence  in  West  Cambridge,  leaving  a  widow 
to  lament  the  loss  of  *a  kind  husband,  his  children  an  indulgent 
father,  and  his  associates  an  amiable  and  devoted  friend.  To  his 
family  he  was  an  example  of  one  who  lived  a  pure  and  blame- 
less life ;  and  though  he  left  but  an  inconsiderable  fortune,  they 


AMOS  WHITTEMORE.  155 

inherited  a  far  brighter  treasure  in  an  unsullied  reputation.  Whit- 
temore  was  of  a  bland  and  conciliating  disposition,  even  in  temper, 
and  in  manners  strikingly  meditative,  conversing  but  little,  and 
often  seen  in  profound  mental  study. 

The  value  that  the  card  machine  has  been,  and  still  is,  not  to 
this  country  alone,  but  to  the  whole  manufacturing  world,  it  is  be- 
lieved even  few  now  justly  appreciate.  With  Whitney's  cotton  gin,  it 
forms  an  important  and  necessary  link  in  the  chain  of  machinery 
which  by  their  operation  furnish  to  the  world  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful, as  well  as  beautiful  fabrics.  How  far  it  may  have  contributed, 
not  only  to  perfect  in  quality,  but  to  reduce  it  in  cost,  cannot  be 
difficult  to  estimate.  We  may  add,  however,  in  conclusion,  that  not 
a  cotton  or  wollen  factory  is  reared,  that  does  not  rely  upon 
the  card  machine  to  complete  its  own  machinery,  and  the  use 
of  the  hand  card,  in  the  southern  states,  has  become  as  general  as 
the  culture  of  cotton  itself. 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


Birth  and  parentage. — Early  ingenuity.— Becomes  a  painter. — Visits  England. — 
Becomes  an  inmate  in  the  family  of  Benjamin  West. — Inland  navigation. — Ex- 
cavating machine. — Visits  France. — Turns  his  attention  to  submarine  warfare. 
— Experiments. — British  Government. — Bonaparte. — Constructs  a  plunging- 
boat,  with  which  he  remains  under  water  an  hour. — Blows  up  a  vessel  in  the 
harbor  of  Brest  with  a  submarine  bomb. — Revisits  England. — Blows  up  a  Dan- 
ish brig. — Returns  to  the  United  States. — Anecdote. — Stationary  torpedo. — 
Congress  appropriate  funds  to  carry  on  his  experiments. — Report  of  the  com- 
missioners.— Letter  to  the  secretary  of  the  navy. — Experiments  on  the  sloop 
of  war  Argus. — Gun-harpoon  and  cable-cutter. — Steam  navigation. — Chancellor 
Livingston. — Fulton's  steam  experiments  in  France. — Experiments  with  a 
steamboat  on  the  Seine. — Commences  building  a  steamboat  in  New  York. — 
Orders  an  engine  from  England. — Description  and  success  of  the  first  experi- 
ment on  the  Hudson. — Redheffer's  perpetual  motion. — Builds  a  floating  steam 
battery  for  government.— Launch. — Voyage  of  "  Fulton  the  First." — Lawsuits. 
— Death. — Conclusion. 

THIS  indefatigable  man  was  born  in  Little  Britain,  Lancaster 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1765,  of  a  respectable,  though 
not  opulent  family.  His  father  was  a  native  of  Kilkenny,  in  Ire. 
land,  and  his  mother  was  of  a  respectable  Irish  family,  residing  in 
Pennsylvania.  He  had  two  sisters  older  than  himself,  besides  a 
younger  brother  and  sister.  His  patrimony  was  very  small.  In 
his  infancy  he  received  the  rudiments  of  a  common  English  educa- 
tion, and  his  peculiar  genius  manifested  itself  at  a  very  early  age. 
All  his  hours  of  recreation  were  passed  in  the  shops  of  mechanics, 
or  in  the  use  of  his  pencil.  By  the  time  he  had  attained  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  became  so  much  of  an  artist,  as  to  derive  emolument 
from  portrait  and  landscape  painting  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  re- 
mained  till  he  was  about  twenty-one. 

When  he  became  of  age,  he  went  to  Washington  county,  and 
there  purchased  a  little  farm,  on  which  he  settled  his  mother,  his 
father  having  died  in  1768.  After  seeing  his  parent  comfortably 
established  in  the  home  which  he  had  provided  for  her,  he  set  out 
with  the  intention  of  returning  to  Philadelphia.  On  his  way,  he 
visited  the  warm  springs  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  met  with  some 
gentlemen,  who  were  so  much  pleased  with  the  genius  they  discov- 
ered in  his  paintings,  that  they  advised  him  to  go  to  England, 
where  they  assured  him  he  would  meet  with  the  patronage  of  his 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


ROBERT  FULTON.  159 

countryman  Mr.  West,  who  had,  even  then,  attained  great  celeb- 
rity. Mr.  Fulton  went  to  England,  and  his  reception  by  Mr.  West 
was  such  as  he  had  been  led  to  anticipate.  That  distinguished 
American  was  so  well  pleased  with  his  promising  and  eaterprising 
genius,  and  his  amiable  qualities,  that  he  took  him  into  his  house, 
where  he  continued  an  inmate  for  several  years.  After  leaving 
the  family  of  Mr.  West,  he  appears  to  have  made  the  art  of  paint- 
ing his  chief  employment  for  some  time.  He  spent  two  years  in 
Devonshire,  near  Exeter,  where  he  made  many  respectable  ac- 
quaintances ;  among  others,  he  became  known  to  the  duke  of 
Bridgewater,  so  famous  for  his  canals,  and  Lord  Stanhope,  a 
nobleman  celebrated  for  his  love  of  science,  and  particularly  for 
his  attachment  to  the  mechanic  arts.  With  Lord  Stanhope^Mr. 
Fulton  held  a  correspondence  for  a  long  time,  and  they  communi- 
cated to  each  other  ideas  on  subjects  towards  which  their  minds 
were  mutually  directed. 

In  1793,  we  find  Mr.  Fulton  actively  engaged  in  a  project  to 
improve  inland  navigation ;  for,  even  at  that  early  day,  he  had 
conceived  the  idea  of  propelling  vessels  by  steam,  and  he  speaks 
in  his  manuscripts  with  great  confidence  of  its  practicability.  In 
May,  1774,  he  obtained  from  the  British  government  a  patent  for 
a  double  inclined  plane,  to  be  used  for  transportation.  An  account 
of  this  may  be  seen  in  vol.  xvii.  of  the  Repertory  of  Arts. 

What  were  Mr.  Fulton's  pursuits  for  some  years  after  this  period 
it  does  not  appear.  In  his  preface  to  a  description  of  his  Nautilus, 
or  plunging-boat,  he  says,  that  he  had  resided  eighteen  months  in 
the  great  manufacturing  town  of  Birmingham,  where  he  must  have 
acquired  some  of  that  practical  knowledge  in  mechanics  which  he 
made  so  useful  to  his  country,  and  indeed  to  all  the  world.  In 
1804,  when  Mr.  Fulton  left  Paris,  he  sent  a  large  collection  of  his 
manuscripts  to  this  country ;  but  unfortunately,  the  vessel  in  which 
they  were  sent  was  wrecked.  The  case  containing  the  papers 
was  recovered,  but  only  a  few  fragments  of  the  manuscripts  were 
preserved.  These,  however,  mark  the  genius  of  Fulton,  and  in- 
crease our  regret  that  any  productions  of  his  strong  and  original 
mind  which  he  thought  worth  preserving  should  be  lost.  It  is 
owing  to  this  misfortune  that  we  have  so  few  traces  of  Mr.  Fulton's 
occupations  at  this  period.  But  a  mind  like  his  could  never  be 
idle,  and  it  is  evident  that,  at  this  time,  it  was  still  directed  to- 
wards his  favorite  pursuits. 

In  1794,  he  submitted  to  the  British  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Arts  and  Commerce,  an  improvement  of  his  invention  in  mills 
for  sawing  marble,  for  which  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  society 
and  an  honorary  medal.  He  invented  also,  as  is  presumed,  about 


160  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

this  time,  a  machine  for  spinning  flax,  and  another  for  making 
ropes,  for  both  of  which  he  obtained  patents  from  the  British  gov- 
ernment. A  mechanical  contrivance  for  scooping  out  earth  in 
certain  situations,  to  form  the  channels  for  canals  or  aqueducts, 
which,  as  it  is  understood,  has  been  much  used  in  England,  is  also 
his  invention.  Indeed,  the  subject  of  canals  appears  chiefly  to 
have  engaged  his  attention  at  this  time.  He  now,  and  probably 
for  some  time  previous,  professed  himself  a  civil  engineer,  and 
lender  this  title  he  published  his  work  on  canals,  and  in  1795, 
some  essays  on  the  same  subject  in  the  London  Morning  Star. 
In  1796,  he  published  in  London,  his  Treatise  on  the  Improve, 
ment  of  Canal  Navigation,  in  which  he  recommends  small  canals 
and  boats  of  little  burden ;  and  also  inclined  planes  instead  of 
IOCKS,  together  with  the  various  contrivances  necessary  to  effect 
the  passage  of  boats  from  one  level  to  another.  His  plans  were 
strongly  recommended  by  the  British  Board  of  Agriculture,  of 
which  Sir  John  Sinclair  was  president. 

Mr.  Fulton,  throughout  his  course  as  a  mechanist  and  civil  en- 
gineer,  derived  great  advantages  from  his  talent  for  drawing  and 
painting.  He  was  an  elegant  and  accurate  draughtsman,  which 
is  proved  by  the  plates  annexed  to  the  work  we  have  mentioned. 
This  gave  him  great  facility  in  procuring  the  execution  of  his 
designs,  and  a  great  advantage  over  most  who  have  engaged  ir 
similar  pursuits.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  neglected  his  penci 
as  a  painter  for  many  years,  till  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
when  he  resumed  it  to  paint  some  portraits  of  his  own  family,  anc 
his  success  in  executing  these  gave  him  much  pleasure. 

Mr.  Fulton,  ever  thoughtful  of  the  interests  of  his  own  country, 
sent  copies  of  his  works  to  distinguished  persons  in  America,  ac- 
companied with  letters,  setting  forth  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  internal  communication  by  canals. 

Having  obtained  a  patent  for  canal  improvements  from  the 
British  government,  he  went  to  France,  with  the  intention  of  in- 
troducing them  there  ;  but  not  meeting  with  much  encouragement, 
he  soon  directed  his  mind  to  other  important  subjects ;  though  the 
canal  system  still  occupied  a  portion  of  his  thoughts.  About  this 
time,  his  thoughts  were  turned  towards  the  subject  of  political 
economy,  and  he  wrote  a  work,  addressed  to  "  the  Friends  of 
Mankind,"  in  which  he  labors  to  show,  that  education  and  internal 
improvements  would  have  a  good  effect  on  the  happiness  of  a  na- 
tion. He  not  only  wished  to  see  a  free  and  speedy  communica- 
tion between  the  different  parts  of  a  large  country,  but  a  universal 
free  trade  between  all  nations.  He  saw  that  it  would  take  ages  to 
establish  the  freedom  of  the  seas  by  the  common  consent  of  na. 


ROBERT  FULTON.  161 

he  therefore  turned  his  whole  attention  to 'find  out  some 
means  of  destroying  ships  of  war,  those  engines  of  oppression, 
and  to  put  it  out  of  the  power  of  any  nation  to  maintain  such  a 
system ;  and  thus  to  compel  every  government  to  adopt  the  simple 
principles  of  education,  industry,  and  a  free  circulatiorr%f  its  pro- 
duce. Out  of  such  enlarged  and  philanthropic  views  and  reflec- 
tions grew  Mr.  Fulton's  inventions  for  submarine  navigation  and 
explosions,  and  with  such  patriotic  motives  did  he  prosecute  them. 
Of  these  inventions  we  now  proceed  to  give  some  account. 

In  the  year  1797,  he  became  acquainted  with  Mr.  Joel  Barlow., 
our  celebrated  countryman,  then  residing  in  Paris,  in  whose  family 
he  lived  seven  years,  during  which  he  learned  the  French,  and 
something  of  the  German  and  Italian  languages.  He  also  studied 
the  high  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  and  perspective. 

In  December,  1797,  he  made  an  experiment  in  company  with 
Mr.  Barlow,  on  the  Seine,  with  a  machine  which  he  had  con- 
structed, and  by  which  he  designed  to  impart  to  carcasses  of  gun- 
powder a  progressive  motion  under  water,  and  there  to  explode 
them  ;  but  he  was  disappointed  in  its  performance.  He  continued, 
however,  to  make  experiments  with  a  view  to  the  accomplishment 
of  his  object,  until  he  had  perfected  the  plan  for  his  submarine 
boat. 

A  want  of  funds  to  enable  him  to  cariy  his  design  into  execu- 
tion, induced  him  to  apply  to  the  French  Directory.  They  at  first 
gave  him  reason  to  expect  their  aid,  but  after  a  long  attendance  at 
the  public  offices,  he  received  a  note,  informing  him  that  they  had 
totally  rejected  his  plan.  Mr.  Fulton  was  not  to  be  discouraged, 
but  pursued  his  inventions  ;  and  having  executed  a  handsome  model 
of  his  machine,  and  a  change  in  the  directors  having  taken  place, 
he  presented  his  plan,  and  a  commission  was  appointed  to  examine 
his  pretensions ;  but  after  three  months  attendance,  he  was  again 
disappointed  by  finding  his  plan  entirely  rejected.  Not  yet,  how. 
ever,  discouraged,  he  offered  his  project  to  the  British  government, 
through  the  ambassador  from  Holland ;  but  without  success,  al- 
though a  commission  was  appointed  to  examine  his  models.  But 
the  French  government  at  length  changed  ;  and  Bonaparte  having 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  it,  Mr.  Fulton  presented  an  address 
to  him,  on  which  a  commission  was  immediately  appointed  and 
assistance  afforded,  which  enabled  him  to  put  some  of  his  plans  in 
practice.  In  the  spring  of  1801,  Mr.  Fulton  repaired  to  Brest,  to 
make  experiments  with  the  plunging-boat  which  he  had  constructed 
the  preceding  winter.  This,  as  he  says,  had  many  imperfections 
natural  to  a  first  machine,  and  had  been  injured  by  rust,  as  parts 
which  should  have  been  of  copper  or  brass  were  made  of  iron. 

12 


162  AMERICAN    MECHANICS. 

Notwithstanding  these  disadvantages,  he  engaged  in  a  course  of 
experiments,  which  required  no  less  courage  than  energy  and  per- 
severance. From  a  report  of  his  proceedings  to  the  committee 
appointed  jp?  the  French  executive,  we  learn,  that  on  the  third  of 
July,  18017  he  embarked  with  three  companions  on  board  his 
plunging-boat  in  the  harbor  of  Brest,  and  descended  to  the  depth 
of  five,  ten,  fifteen,  and  so  on  to  twenty-five  feet ;  but  he  did  not 
attempt  to  go  lower,  because  he  found  that  his  imperfect  machine 
would  not  bear  the  pressure  of  the  water  at  a  greater  depth.  He 
remained  below  the  surface  an  hour  in  utter  darkness,  which  was 
very  unpleasant,  and  candles  were  found  to  consume  too  much  of 
the  vital  air ;  so  he  caused  a  small  window  of  thick  glass  to  be 
made  near  the  bow  of  his  boat,  which  afforded  him  light  enough 
to  count  the  minutes  on  his  watch.  Having  satisfied  himself  that 
he  could  have  sufficient  light  under  water ;  that  he  could  do  a  long 
time  without  fresh  air,  and  descend  to  any  depth  or  rise  to  the 
surface  with  facility ;  his  next  object  was  to  try  the  movements  of 
liis  vessel,  as  well  on  the  surface  as  under  it.  He  found  that  she 
would  tack  and  steer,  and  sail  on  a  wind  or  before  it,  as  well  as 
any  common  sailing  boat.  He  then  struck  her  masts  and  sails  ; 
to  do  which,  and  prepare  for  plunging,  required  about  two  minutes. 
Having  plunged  to  a  certain  depth,  he  placed  two  men  at  the 
engine,  which  was  intended  to  give  her  progressive  motion,  and 
one  at  the  helm,  while  he,  with  a  barometer  before  him,  kept  her 
balanced  between  the  upper  and  lower  waters.  He  found  that 
with  one  hand  he  could  keep  her  at  any  depth  he  pleased ;  and 
that  in  seven  minutes  he  had  gone  about  the  third  of  a  mile.  He 
could  turn  her  round  while  under  water,  and  return  to  the  place 
he  started  from.  These  experiments  were  repeated  for  several 
days,  till  he  became  familiar  with  the  operation  of  the  machinery 
and  the  motion  of  the  boat.  He  found  that  she  was  as  obedient 
to  her  helm  under  water  as  any  boat  could  be  on  the  surface  ;  and 
that  the  magnetic  needle  traversed  as  well  in  one  situation  as  in 
the  other. 

On  the  7th  of  August,  Mr.  Fulton  descended  with  a  store  of  air 
compressed  into  a  copper  globe,  whereby  he  was  enabled  to  remain 
under  water  four  hours  and  twenty  minutes.  The  success  of  these 
experiments  determined  him  to  try  the  effects  of  these  inventions 
on  the  English  ships,  which  were  daily  near  the  harbor  of  Brest. 
Satisfied  with  his  boat,  he  next  made  some  experiments  with  the 
torpedoes,  or  submarine  bombs.  A  small  vessel  was  anchored  in 
the  roads,  and  with  a  bomb  containing  about  twenty  pounds  of 
powder,  he  approached  within  about  two  hundred  yards,  struck 
the  vessel  and  blew  her  into  atoms.  A  column  of  water  and  frag- 


ROBERT  FULTON  163 

merits  was  blown  near  one  hundred  feet  into  the  air.  This  experi- 
ment was  made  in  the  presence  of  the  prefect  of  the  department 
and  a  multitude  of  spectators. 

Through  the  summer  of  1801,  and  till  the  project,  was  relin- 
quished on  account  of  the  season,  Mr.  Fulton  appears  to  have  been 
watching  the  English  ships  which  were  on  the  coast ;  but  though 
some  of  them  daily  approached  off  the  harbor,  yet  none  of  them 
came  so  near,  or  anchored  in  such  a  situation,  as  to  be  exposed  to 
the  effects  of  his  attempts.  In  one  instance,  he  came  very  near  a 
British  seventy-four ;  but  she,  just  in  time,  made  such  a  change  of 
position  as  to  save  herself.  The  rulers  of  France  were  discouraged 
by  this  want  of  success,  or  rather  of  opportunity,  and,  so  far  from 
being  willing  to  make  farther  advances  for  new  experiments  or 
efforts,  they  showed  no  disposition  to  fulfil  the  engagements  they 
had  already  made  with  Mr.  Fulton.  The  escape  of  the  enemy's 
vessels  seems  to  have  lowered  his  invention  so  much  in  their  es- 
timation, that  they  refused  to  give  him  any  farther  encouragement. 

The  English  had  some  information  respecting  the  attempts 
which  their  enemies  were  making,  but  did  not  know  to  what  ex- 
tent they  had  been  carried.  Much  anxiety  was  expressed,  which 
induced  the  British  minister  to  communicate  with  Mr.  Fulton,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  deprive  France  of  his  services,  and  secure 
them  to  England.  In  this  he  was  successful,  and  Mr.  Fulton  was 
induced  to  proceed  to  London,  where  he  arrived  in  May,  1804. 
He  sooji  had  an  interview  with  Mr.  Pitt  and  Lord  Melville.  When 
Mr.  Pitt  first  saw  a  drawing  of  a  torpedo,  with  a  sketch  of  the 
mode  of  applying  it,  and  understood  what  would  be  the  effect  of 
the  explosion,  he  said  that  if  it  were  introduced  into  practice,  it 
could  not  fail  of  annihilating  all  military  marines  ;  and  when  Mr. 
Fulton  exhibited  his  torpedo  and  described  its  effects  to  the  Earl 
St.  Vincent,  he  exclaimed,  in  the  strong  language  of  his  profession, 
against  this  mode  of  warfare,  which,  he  said,  with  great  reason, 
they  who  commanded  the  seas  did  not  want,  and  which,  if  suc- 
cessful, would  wrest  the  trident  from  those  who  claimed  to  bear  it 
as  the  sceptre  of  supremacy  over  the  ocean.  From  the  subse- 
quent conduct  of  the  British  ministry,  it  may  well  be  supposed  that 
they  never  truly  intended  to  give  Mr.  Fulton  a  fair  opportunity  of 
trying  the  effects  of  his  engines.  The  object  may  have  been  to 
prevent  them  from  being  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  enemy ;  and  if 
this  was  accomplished,  it  was  the  interest  of  England,  as  long  as 
she  was  ambitious  of  the  proud  title  of  mistress  of  the  seas,  to 
make  the  world  believe  that  Mr.  Fulton's  projects  were  chimerical. 
Nothing  would  be  more  likely  to  produce  this  effect  than  abortive 
attempts  to  apply  them.  Several  experiments  were  made,  and 


164  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

some  of  them  were  failures  ;  but  on  the  15th  of  October,  1805,  he 
blew  up  a  strong  built  Danish  brig  of  200  tons  burden,  which  had 
been  provided  for  the  experiment,  and  which  was  anchored  in 
Walmar  roads,  near  the  residence  of  Mr.  Pitt.  The  torpedo  used 
on  this  occasion  contained  170  pounds  of  powder;  and  in  fifteen 
minutes  from  the  time  of  starting  the  machinery  and  throwing  tlie 
torpedo  into  the  water,  the  explosion  took  place.  It  lifted  the  brig 
almost  entire,  and  broke  her  completely  in  two.  The  ends  sunk 
immediately,  and  in  one  minute  nothing  was  to  be  seen  of  her  but 
floating  fragments.  In  fact,  her  annihilation  was  complete. 

Notwithstanding  the  complete  success  of  this  experiment,  the 
British  ministry  seem  to-have  been  but  little  disposed  to  have  any 
thing  farther  to  do  with  Mr.  Fulton  or  his  projects.  Indeed,  the 
evidence  it  afforded  of  their  efficacy  may  have  been  a  reason  for 
this  conduct.  After  some  further  experiments,  of  which  we  have 
no  particular  account,  he  at  length  embarked  for  his  native  coun- 
try, and  arrived  at  New  York  on  the  13th  of  December,  1806. 

Upon  his  arrival  in  this  country,  he  immediately  engaged  in  the 
projects,  both  of  submarine  war  and  steam  navigation.  For  the 
last  he  had  made  some  preparations  before  he  left  England ;  but 
we  intend  to  postpone  this  important  subject,  to  be  presented  in 
one  view,  after  tracing  the  progress  of  his  other  pursuits. 

So.  far  from  being  discouraged  by  his  attempts  at  applying  his 
torpedoes  in  Europe,  his  confidence  was  unabated,  because  he  saw, 
as  he  said,  that  his  failures  were  to  be  attributed  to  trivial  errors-, 
which  actual  experience  only  could  discover,  and  which  could  be 
easily  corrected.  He  very  soon  induced  our  government  to  afford 
him  the  means  of  trying  further  experiments,  and  invited  the  magis=. 
tracy  of  New  York  and  a  number  of  citizens  to  Go-vernor's  Island1, 
where  were  the  torpedoes  and  machinery  with  which  his  experi- 
ments were  to  be  made ;  and  while  he  was  explaining  his  blank 
torpedoes,  which  were  large  copper  cylinders,  his  numerous  audi- 
tors crowded  around  him.  At  length  he  turned  to  a  copper  case 
of  the  same  description,  which  was  placed  under  the  gateway  of 
the  fort,  and  to  which  was  attached  a  clockwork  lock.  This,  by 
drawing  out  a  peg,  he  set  in  motion,  and  then  said  to  his  audience  : 
"  Gentlemen,  this  is  a  charged  torpedo,  with  which,  precisely  in 
its  present  state,  I  mean  to  blow  up  a  vessel.  It  contains  170 
pounds  of  powder ;  and  if  I  were  to  suffer  the  clockwork  to  rur> 
fifteen  minutes,  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  it  would  blow  this  fortifi- 
cation to  atoms."  The  circle  round  Mr.  Fulton  was  very  soon 
much  enlarged,  and  before  five  of  the  fifteen  minutes  were  out, 
there  were  but  two  or  three  persons  remaining  under  the  gateway 
The  apprehensions  of  the  company  amused  him^  and  he  took  CMS 


ROBERT  FULTON. 


165 


casion  to  remark,  how  true  it  was  that  fear  frequently  arose  from 
ignorance. 

On  the  20th  of  July,  1807,  he  blew  up  with  a  torpedo,  in  the 
harbor  of  New  York,  a  large  hulk  brig,  which  had  been  prepared 
for  the  purpose.  This  experiment  only  served  to  prove  to  the  in- 
habitants  of  New  York,  by  ocular  demonstration,  that  the  explo- 
sion of  a  torpedo  under  a  vessel's  bottom  would  annihilate  her. 

A  The  annexed  cut  represents  one  of  Mr. 

Fulton's  stationary  torpedoes,  which  were 
to  be  carcasses  of  powder,  having  levers 
attached  to  the  triggers  of  the  locks  ;  num. 
bers  of  them  were  to  be  anchored  in  the 
channel  through  wrhich  vessels,  to  make  an 
attack,  must  pass.  The  hostile  vessel,  in 
passing  over  a  torpedo,  would  press  the 
lever  and  cause  an  explosion.  A  is  the 
lever,  and  B  a  portion  of  the  rope  to  which 
the  anchor  is  attached. 

In  a  letter  to  the  city  government  of  New  York,  Mr.  Fulton 
says  :  "  You  have  now  seen  the  effect  of  the  explosion  oT  powder 
under  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  and  this,  I  believe,  is  the  best  and 
most  simple  mode  of  using  it  with  the  greatest  effect  in  marine 
wars ;  for  a  right  application  of  one  torpedo  will  annihilate  a  ship, 
nor  leave  a  man  to  relate  the  dreadful  catastrophe.  Thus,  should 
a  ship  of  the  line,  containing  five  hundred  men,  contend  with  ten 
good  row  boats,  each  with  a  torpedo  and  ten  men,  she  would  risk 
total  annihilation,  while  the  boats,  under  cover  of  the  night  and 
with  quick  movements,  would  risk  only  a  few  men  out  of  the  hun- 
dred. When  two  ships  of  equal  force  engage,  it  may  be  doubtful 
which  will  gain  the  victory ;  frequently  one  hundred  men  are  killed, 
as  many  wounded,  and  the  ships  much  injured.  But  even  the 
vanquished  vessels  will  admit  of  being  repaired,  and  thus  the 
number  of  ships  of  war  will  not  be  diminished  ;  but  will  continue 
to  increase  and  tyrannize  over  the  rights  of  neutrals  and  peaceable 
nations." 

In  March,  1810,  five  thousand  dollars  were  granted  by  congress 
for  further  experiments  in  submarine  explosions,  which  gave  Mr. 
Fulton  another  opportunity  to  exercise  his  skill.  A  commission 
was  also  appointed  to  be  present  and  report  the  results.  The 
sloop  of  war  Argus  was  prepared  for  defence  against  the  torpedoes, 
under  the  orders  of  Commodore  Rogers,  after  Mr.  Fulton  had  ex- 
plained his  mode  of  attack.  The  defence  was  so  complete,  that 
he  found  it  impracticable  to  do  any  thing  with  his  torpedoes  as 

12* 


106  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

they  were  then  prepared.  Some  experiments  were  tried,  however, 
with  his  gun-harpoon  and  cable-cutter ;  and  after  several  attempts, 
a  fourteen-inch  cable  was  cut  off,  several  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  water..  The.  commissioners  appointed  to  make  the  report  did 
not  exactly  agree  in  sentiments  concerning  these  experiments. 
The  following  letter  from  Mr.  Fulton  to  the  secretary  of  the  navy 
accompanied  their  report : — 

"  Kalorama,  (District  of  Columbia,)  February  1,  1811. 

"  SIR, — I  have  the  honor  to  return  to  you  the  report  of  the 
committee  on  the  torpedo  experiments,  with  that  of  Commodore 
Rogers^  and  the  letters  of  Robert  R.  Livingston,  Morgan  Lewis, 
and  Cadwallader  D.  Golden,  on  the  same  subject.  The  opinions 
expressed  in  these  papers  are,  I  think,  as  favorable  to  this  infant 
art  as,  under  all  circumstances,  could  be  expected.  It  is  proved 
and  admitted — 

"  1st.  That  the  water-proof  locks  will  ignite  gunpowder  under 
water. 

"  2d.  It  is  proved  that  seventy  pounds  of  powder,  exploded  un- 
der the  bottom  of  a  vessel  of  two  hundred  tons,  will  blow  her  up  ; 
hence  it  is  admitted  by  all  the  above  parties,  that  if  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  powder  (and  which,  I  believe,  need  not  be  more  than 
two  hundred  pounds,)  be  ignited  under  the  bottom  of  a  first-rate 
man-of-war,  it  would  instantly  destroy  her. 

"  3d.  It  is  proved  and  admitted  by  all  parties,  concerned  in  the 
experiments,  that  a  gun  can  be  fixed  under  water,  and  a  cable  of 
any  size  may  be  cut  by  that  means  at  any  required  depth.  With 
these  immensely  important  principles  proved  and  admitted,  the 
question  naturally  occurs,  whether  there-  be  within  the  genius  or 
inventive  faculties  of  man,  the  means  of  placing  a  torpedo  under  a 
ship,  in  defiance  of  her  powers  of  resistance,  tie  who  says  there 
is  not,  and  that  consequently  torpedoes  never  can  be  rendered  use- 
ful, must  of  course  believe  that  he  has  penetrated  to  the  limits  of 
man's  inventive  powers,  and  that  he  has-  contemplated  ali  the  com- 
binations and  arrangements  which  present  or  future  ingenuity  can 
devise  to  place  a  torpedo  under  a  ship.  There  is  no  man  of  sound 
sense,  who  has  the  least  acquaintance  with  the  difficulties  under 
which  all  the  arts  have  labored  in  their  infancy,  who  on  calm  re* 
flection  will  be  so  weak  or  vain  as  to  presume  that  he  possesses  a 
strength  of  intellect  to  foresee  all  that  can  be  done,  not  only  in  infant 
arts,  but  in  arts  now  familiar  and  long  established. 

"  But  as  it  is  impossible  now  to  conceive  the  various  modes  which 
may  be  invented  for  placing  torpedoes  under  a  ship,  and  as  the 
success  is  of  incalculable  importance  to  our  country,  there  is  every 


ROBERT    FULTON.  167 

reason  to  prosecute  the  experiments  with  ardor ;  and  we  are  en- 
couraged  to  this  by  a  contemplation  of  the  progress  of  the  whole 
military  art,  and  particularly  the  attack  and  defence  of  fortified 
places.  The  celebrated  Vauban,  after  years  of  experience,  aided 
by  a  powerful  genius,  to  fortify  cities,  confessed  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  make  any  work  so  strong  by  art  alone  that  it  could  not  be 
taken  by  the  art  and  exertions  of  a  besieging  army,  in  which  the 
besiegers  commence  by  parallels  and  zigzags,  to  approach  the 
rampart  of  the  besieged,  and  run  their  mine  or  subterranean  pass- 
age  under  the  works  to  blow  them  up.  During  the  whole  time  of 
their  approaches,  which  is  frequently  for  weeks  or  months,  the  be- 
siegers are  under  as  heavy  a  fire  from  the  besieged,  as  has  or  per- 
haps can  be  invented ;  when  the  explosion  makes  a  breach  in  the 
rampart  it  is  defended  by  all  the  guns  loaded  with  grape  and  canister 
shot,  which  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it :  the  trench  is  enfiladed 
with  cannon  and  small  arms.  In  fact  the  whole  power  of  the  be- 
sieged is  directed  to  defend  the  breach,  perhaps  not  twenty  feet 
wide ;  yet  in  defiance  of  so  concentrated  a  fire,  a  fire  infinitely 
more  destructive  than  any  ship  could  keep  up  from  her  bow,  there 
are  hundreds  of  instances  of  such  breaches  having  been  forced  and 
the  works  taken.  Is  it  impossible  to  contemplate  the  ingenious  com- 
binations, the  perseverance,  the  risk  and  acts  of  valor  of  a  besieg- 
ing army,  and  then  believe  that  there  are  not  ways  and  means, 
enterprise  and  courage,  when  organized  and  exercised,  to  mine 
through  water,  which  is  the  work  of  a  few  minutes,  and  blow  up  a 
ship,  when  the  risk  is  not  one  thousandth  part  so  great  as  that  of 
storming  a  breachj  I  think,  sir,  this  comparative  view  of  the 
danger  in  storming  a  breach,  and  attacking  a  ship,  proves,  that 
added  to  three  principles  before  mentioned  and  admitted,  the  cour- 
age to  undertake  the  attack  of  a  ship  with  torpedoes  must  be  ad- 
mitted also. 

"  I  will  now  consider  the  progress  of  the  experiments  at  New 
York,  and  the  prospect  of  future  improvement  which  they  present : 

"  First,  as  to  the  harpoon,  it  is  admitted  that  at  the  distance  of 
'  fifteen  feet  the  harpoon  stuck  firm.1  *  Were  it  improved  it 
should  not  be  fired  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  ship  than  thirty 
or  forty  feet,  because  the  sudden  jerk  on  the  line  might  break  it  off 
at  the  torpedo  :  men  in  a  boat  at  thirty  feet  distance  from  a  ship, 
are  in  as  great  danger  as  when  in  with  her  bow  and  under  her 
guns ;  thus  as  the  harpoon  can  be  fixed  at  fifteen  feet,  I  will  not  at 
present  insist  on  a  greater  distance,  though  I  am  certain  that  prac- 
tice will  enable  me  to  fix  the  harpoons  at  the  distance  of  forty  or 

,*  It  entered  five  inches  into  oak  plank. 


168  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

more  feet  if  required  ;  but  I  do  insist  that  organized  men,  who  have 
courage  to  storm  a  breach  or  to  attack  a  vessel  by  boarding,  have 
courage  to  approach  within  fifteen  feet  of  a  ship  to  fire  a  harpoon, 
or  even  if  necessary  to  drive  a  spike  into  her  bow ;  when  the  ship 
discharges  her  bow  guns,  her  bow  must  be  covered  with  smoke, 
after  which  all  shot  against  the  boats  will  be  random,  particularly 
if  the  attack  be  made  in  the  night ;  but  to  protect  the  men,  the 
torpedo  boats  may  be  decked  with  thick  oak  plank,  and  rendered 
proof  against  canister  and  musket-shot.  The  risk  of  the  men 
would  then  be  inconsiderable,  for  while  a  boat  was  near  in  with 
the  bow  of  the  ship,  her  cannon  could  not  be  brought  to  bear  so  as 
to  fire  round-shot.  It  is,  therefore,  a  fair  conclusion,  that,  courage 
added  to  art,  a  ship  cannot  guard  herself  against  a  torpedo  attack 
by  means  of  her  guns  and  small-arms  only.  She  must,  therefore, 
have  nets,  booms,  grapnels,  &c.  &c. 

"  I  will  now  do  justice  to  the  talents  of  Commodore  Rodgers,  by 
stating  that  the  nets,  booms,  kentledge  and  grapnels  which  he  ar- 
ranged round  the  Argus,  made  at  first  sight  a  formidable  appear- 
ance against  one  torpedo  boat  and  eight  bad  oarsmen.  I  was  taken 
unawares  ;  I  had  explained  to  the  officers  of  the  navy  my  means 
of  attack ;  they  did  not  inform  me  of  their  measures  of  defence ; 
the  nets  were  put  down  to  the  ground,  otherwise  I  should  have 
sent  the  torpedoes  under  them.  In  this  situation,  the  means  with 
which  I  was  provided,  being  imperfect,  insignificant,  and  inade- 
quate to  the  effect  to  be  produced,  I  might  be  compared  to  what 
Bartholomew  Schwartz,  the  inventor  of  gunpowder,  would  have 
appeared,  had  he  lived  at  the  time  of  Julius  Casar,  and  presented 
himself  before  the  gates  of  Rome  with  a  four-pounder,  thereby  en- 
deavoring to  convince  the  Roman  legions  that  by  the  means  of 
such  machines  well  organized,  he  could  batter  down  the  walls  and 
take  the  city :  a  few  catapultas  casting  arrows  and  stones  upon 
his  men,  would  have  caused  them  to  retreat ;  a  shower  of  rain 
might  destroy  his  ill-guarded  powder,  and  the  Roman  centurions 
who  could  not  conceive  the  various  modes  in  which  gunpowder  has 
since  been  used  to  destroy  the  then  art  of  war,  (as  my  opponents 
cannot  now  see  the  combinations  by  which  torpedoes  may  super- 
sede the  necessity  of  ships  of  wrar,)  would  very  naturally  conclude 
that  it  was  a  useless  invention ;  while  the  manufacturers  of  cata- 
pultas, bows,  arrows,  and  shields,  would  be  the  most  vehement 
against  further  experiments. 

"  This,  sir,  may  be  conceived  a  digression ;  but  being  on  an  in- 
teresting subject,  I  have  stated  this  supposed  first  experiment  with 
a  four-pounder  as  a  case  in  point.  Some  of  the  first  cannon  were 
made  of  leather ;  but  if  such  cannon  failed,  does  it  therefore  fol- 


ROBERT   FULTON.  169 

low  that  gunpowder  was  useless  1  Or  does  it  follow,  because  I  was 
not  prepared  to  put  torpedoes  through  a  net  the  first  time  it  was 
presented  to  me,  that  the  defect  was  in  the  torpedoes  ?  You,  sir, 
will  instantly  perceive  it  was  not ;  but  arose  from  the  want  of  time 
and  experience.  I  had  not  one  man  instructed  in  the  use  of  the 
machines,  nor  had  I  time  to  reflect  on  this  particular  mode  for 
defending  a  vessel.  I  have  now,  however,  had  time ;  and  I  feel 
confident  that  I  have  discovered  a  means  which  will  render  nets 
to  the  ground,  booms,  kentledge,  grapnels,  oars  with  sword-blades 
through  the  port-holes,  and  all  such  kinds  of  operations,  totally 
useless.  It  is  as  follows  : — 

"  Should  an  enemy  of  any  force  enter  one  of  our  ports  and  put 
her  nets  to  the  ground,  let  government  press  from  the  wharves 
four  or  more  merchantmen,  loaded  or  in  ballast,  each  of  them 
from  three  to  four  hundred  tons  burden ;  in  the  magazine  there 
should  be  thirty  or  forty  torpedoes,  each  containing  two  hundred 
pounds  of  powder,  and  each  adjusted  to  the  end  of  a  spar  or  boom, 
from  forty  to  sixty  feet  long,  tapering  from  the  butt  to  the  point, 
where  the  torpedo,  of  a  conic  form,  and  having  on  each  side  a 
long  blade  or  scythe,  should  be  firmly  fixed  ;  let  the  butt  end  of 
the  spar  be  tied  so  as  to  act  like  a  swivel  under  the  fore-chains, 
one  on  the  larboard,  the  other  on  the  starboard  side,  and  the  other 
end  of  the  spars  with  the  torpedo  be  hoisted  up  to  the  spritsail- 
yard,  and  held  there  until  near  the  scene  of  action.  The  expense 
of  thus  preparing  a  ship  will  be  800  or  1,000  dollars,  and  each 
will  be  as  dangerous  to  an  enemy  as  a  fire-ship.  The  expense 
of  a  fire-ship  is  from  8  to  10,000  dollars,  which  sum  could  cer- 
tainly be  expended  to  greater  advantage  by  arranging  torpedo- 
ships  as  here  proposed,  and  for  the  following  reasons : — First, 
8,000  dollars  would  pay  for  arranging  eight  torpedo-ships,  which 
could  be  done  in  a  few  hours  ;  each  with  two  torpedoes  projecting 
from  the  bow,  which  eight  ships  moving  at  one  time  towards  the 
enemy,  would  divide  her  fire  on  eight  points,  and  render  it  less 
dangerous  to  each  than  in  the  case  of  one  fire-ship,  which  would 
draw  on  her  the  whole  fire  of  the  vessel  attacked. 

"  Second,  the  expense  of  a  fire-ship  is  so  great,  that  an  attack 
is  seldom  made  with  more  than  one  ;  which  must  be  grappled  with 
the  enemy,  then  set  on  fire  and  abandoned  by  her  men,  who  must 
take  to  their  boat,  and  expose  themselves  to  the  boats  and  guns  of 
the  vessel  attacked.  Should  the  fire-ship  be  grappled  to  the  enemy, 
still  she  may  not  burn  so  as  to  communicate  the  fire  :  or  if  to  the 
leeward,  she  may  be  cut  adrift ;  at  all  events,  if  in  port,  the  men 
could  escape  to  the  shore  :  therefore,  their  danger  not  being  great, 
they  would  work  with  more  confidence  and  ardor  to  extinguish 


170  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

the  flames  and  save  their  ship  ;  yet  the  clanger  with  which  fire-ships 
impress  an  enemy  makes  them  respect  the  ports  where  they  are 
prepared  for  action. 

"  In  the  year  1776,  Commodore  Tolbert  grappled  a  fire-ship  to 
a  British  two-decker  in  the  river  Hudson :  he  set  his  ship  on  fire, 
and  returned  to  shore  under  a  heavy  discharge  of  musketry  and 
cannon,  without  losing  a  man.  He  failed  to  burn  the  enemy,  but 
he  drove  the  vessel  attacked,  and  one  of  equal  force,  from  seven 
miles  above  New  York  down  to  Staten  Island. 

"  As  it  does  not  require  so  much  bravery  to  make  an  attack 
with  a  torpedo-ship  as  to  grapple  a  fire-ship  to  an  enemy,  the  use 
of  fire-ships  proves  that  courage  is  to  be  found  to  attack  with  those 
which  may  be  armed  with  torpedoes.  Suppose,  then,  two  torpedo, 
ships  fastened  to  each  other  by  a  chain  80  or  100  feet  long,  form- 
ing a  bridle  opposite  to  the  fore-chains,  in  the  manner  I  arrange 
my  floating  torpedoes  ;  then  to  be  sailed  or  floated  down  on  the 
tide,  the  torpedoes  let  down  twenty-two  feet  under  water,  one  ship 
steered  for  the  larboard  and  one  for  the  starboard  side  of  the  ene- 
my ;  in  this  manner  the  chain  would  cross  her  cable,  before  which 
she  must  either  slip  or  cut  cable  and  run,  or  the  momentum  of  the 
torpedo-ships  would  sheer  round,  stern  outwards,  and  press  the 
torpedoes  through  the  nets  under  her  bottom,  where  instant  explo- 
sion would  be  instant  death :  such  an  operation  gives  no  time  for 
an  enemy  to  deliberate  or  exert  themselves  to  push  off,  or  cut  tor- 
pedo vessels  adrift,  or  to  calculate  on  getting  to  shore  in  boats. 
The  tremendous  consequence  of  explosion  under  a  ship  deprives 
common  men,  such  as  sailors,  of  all  firmness,  and  the  irresistible 
danger  would  also  influence  the  major  part  of  officers  :  hence  this 
mode  of  attack  is  infinitely  more  to  be  dreaded  than  that  of  fire- 
ships  ;  and  for  these  reasons  an  enemy  will  not  dare  to  enter  our 
ports  to  put  it  to  the  test.  Should  any  one  doubt  the  practicability 
of  this  mode  of  passing  torpedoes  through  nets  and  under  a  vessel, 
the  importance  of  the  object  merits  the  experiment. 

"  Of  the  anchored  torpedoes,  I  have  had  the  pleasure  to  show 
you  the  improvements  I  have  made  on  these  since  the  meeting  of 
the  committee  at  New  York,  to  give  them  stability  under  water, 
or  to  take  them  up  or  put  them  down  when  necessary :  there  is  a 
very  simple  mode  to  convince  any  unbeliever  of  the  advantage 
which  this  kind  of  engine  will  present,  and  the  respect  for  our  har- 
bors which  it  will  create  in  the  mind  of  an  enemy  :  let  me  put  one 
under  water,  and  they  who  do  not  believe  in  its  effect  may  put  their 
confidence  to  the  proof  by  sailing  over  it. 

"  A  compound  engine  of  this  kind  will  cost  from  eight  hundred 
to  one  thousand  dollars  :  three  hundred  and  twenty  of  them  could 


ROBERT  FULTON.  171 

be  made  for  the  first  cost  of  one  ship  of  54  guns  ;  of  which  three 
hundred  and  twenty,  say  one  hundred  at  New  York  ;  one  hundred, 
if  required,  at  Boston ;  one  hundred  at  Charleston  ;  twenty  in  the 
Delaware,  to  be  placed  in  the  waters  between  the  forts  or  batteries  ; 
and  thus  four  ports  could  be  guarded  so  as  to  render  it  impossible 
for  the  enemy's  ships  to  enter  either  of  them,  unless  they  had 
strength  first  to. take  possession  of  the  land  and  forts,  and  then 
time  to  deliberately  search  for  the  torpedoes  ;  yet  one  ship  of  54 
guns  cannot  guard  one  port  against  one  74  gun-ship,  although  her 
first  cost  in  anchored  torpedoes  would  guard  at  leastithree  ports 
against  ten  ships  of  74  guns.  In  this  estimate  it  may  also  be 
stated,  that  a  54  gun-ship  in  commission  costs  the  nation  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars  a-year ;  this,  at  five  per  cent.,  is  interest 
to  raise  a  loan  of  two  millions  to  build  the  forts  or  batteries  in 
barbet,  between  which  the  torpedoes  should  be  placed.*  While  I 
thus  compare  the  expense  of  torpedoes  with  that  of  a  ship  of  54 
guns,  I  do  not  mean  to  object  to  such  ships  to  protect  our  coast ; 
but  when  considered  for  harbor  defence,  or  aiding  forts  or  batteries 
to  defend  harbors,  the  money  can  be  better  expended  in  torpedoes. 
"  In  the  report  of  the  committee  it  is  also  admitted  that  I  cut  a 
fourteen-inch  cable  at  the  depth  of  six  feet  under  water,  (it  was,  in 
fact,  twelve  feet  under  the  water.)  In  this  experiment,  it  is  true, 
I  was  five  or  six  minutes  within  pistol-shot  of  the  vessel :  the  rea- 
son is,  it  was  only  the  fourth  time  a  cable-cutting  machine  was 
ever  tried ;  with  so  little  experience,  I  did  not  attempt  to  cut  at  a 
greater  distance :  the  object  at  the  time  being  to  prove  that  a 
cable  could  be  hooked  and  cut  without  injuring  the  machine.  New 
invented  instruments  must  be  unskilfully  used  for  a  time  ;  but  with 
the  practice  of  only  one  month  and  one  good  boa^s  crew,  I  will 
undertake  to  cut  the  cable  of  a  ship  at  any  given  depth  under 
water,  without  approaching  nearer  to  her  than  eight  hundred  yards. 
I  will  also  undertake  to  place  myself  at  the  distance  of  eight  hun- 
dred yards  from  a  ship  having  an  unguarded  cable,  and  at  that 
distance  I  will  put  an  improved  cable-cutting  machine  in  the  water : 
I  will  there  abandon  it,  and  it  shall  go  to  the  cable,  cut  it  off  and 
set  the  ship  adrift,  without  any  further  aid  on  my  part  than  placing 
it  in  the  water.  Such  is  the  unforeseen  and  incalculable  results 
of  mechanical  combinations.*  It  may  be  said,  if  one  cable  be  cut 
and  anchor  lost,  the  enemy  could  put  out  a  second,  third,  fourth, 
or  fifth  anchor  and  cable ;  but  as  a  provident  government  would 
not  undertake  to  defend  a  port  with  one  cannon,  so  there  should 
be  in  the  magazine  fifteen  or  twenty  machines  for  cutting  cables, 

*  This  discovery  has  been  produced  by  my  other  experiments. 


172  AMERICAN   MECHANICS. 

and  there  should  be  a  marine  militia  practised  in  the  use  of  them. 
In  such  case  an  enemy  could  not  afford  to  exchange  an  anchor 
and  cable,  worth  five  thousand  dollars,  against  three  ounces  of 
gunpowder,  and  at  the  same  time  run  the  risk  of  being  driven  on 
shore  in  a  calm  or  by  a  lee-tide ;  hence,  in  our  calculations  on 
harbor  defence,  this  instrument  alone  will  always  be  an  embar- 
rassing consideration  for  an  enemy. 

"  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  whole  of  the  experiments  at  New 
York  were  badly  executed ;  but  they  could  not  be  otherwise.  I 
had  not  a  naan  practised,  nor  am  I  experienced  in  the  use  of  my 
own  machines.  I  consequently  was  necessitated  to  explain  my 
theory  by  such  imperfect  means  as  I  had  in  my  power ;  yet,  under 
all  these  disadvantages,  I  have,  to  my  satisfaction,  gained  much 
useful  experience,  and  evidently  convinced  some  of  the  committee 
of  the  great  importance  of  persevering,  and  particularly  with  a 
view  to  harbor  defence.  By  the  experiments  I  have  discovered 
much  of  the  strength  and  resources  of  'my  opponents  ;  and  I  am 
satisfied  I  can  defeat  every  obstruction  which  has  hitherto  been 
presented  :  this  I  hope  to  prove  after  some  practice.  But  having 
"witnessed  the  activity  and  resources  of  mind  which  Commodore 
Rodgers  and  Captain  Chauncey  possess,  I  look  forward  to  contend 
with  new  and  difficult  combinations  which  they  may  produce  for 
defence  :  in  this  manner  it  is  probable  we  shall  discover  the  prin- 
cipal means  of  defence  against  torpedoes,  and  modes  of  attack 
with  them,  until,  like  the  attack  and  defence  of  fortified  places,  the 
measures  to  be  pursued  on  each  side,  in  all  cases,  will  become  fa- 
miliar, and  a  fair  calculation  may  be  made  on  the  mode  of  attack- 
ing a  ship. 

"  But,  sir,  to  do  this,  it  is  indispensable  that  I  should  have 
twenty  or  thirty  men  under  my  command,  to  be  practised  to  the 
use  of  my  engines  in  my  own  way.  Well  as  gunnery  is  under- 
stood, no  one  can  hope  that  young  recruits  should  fire  a  cannon 
with  skill  and  effect  until  they  have  some  months  practice.  It  is, 
therefore,  demanding  of  me  to  perform  a  miracle,  to  apply  torpe- 
does to  advantage,  break  through  nets,  harpoon  ships,  and  cut 
cables,  with  an  outfit  of  one  thousand  dollars,  and  not  one  man 
practised  to  assist  me.  Compare  my  situation  with  that  of  my 
opponents  ;  men  of  talents  and  sound  nautical  knowledge,  working 
on  their  own  element,  the  commodore  commanding  more  than  four 
hundred  men  in  a  ship  of  fifty-four  guns,  which  ship,  with  all  her 
various  apparatus  as  fitted  for  efficient  service,  is  an  engine  pro- 
duced by  the  combined  talents  of  some  thousands  of  ingenious 
men,  who  have  directed  their  attention  to  the  improvement  of  ves- 
sels of  war  since  the  invention  of  gunpowder :  thus  the  commodore, 


ROBERT  FULTON.  173 

added  to  his  own  talents,  has  the  advantage  of  the  experience  and 
talents  of  all  nautical  men  who  have  lived  before  him ;  yet  he 
would  not  be  so  imprudent  as  to  face  an  enemy  of  equal  force,  if 
his  men  were  raw  recruits  unpractised  to  the  guns  or  working  of 
the  ship  ;  and  it  is  to  familiarize  his  men  to  their  duty  in  each  de- 
partment that  he  is  in  a  state  of  constant  practice.  A  succession 
of  experiments  on  his  men,  which  costs  the  nation  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  a  year,  which  experiments,  when  followed  from 
one  to  ten  or  twenty  years,  at  the  expense  of  from  one  hundred 
thousand  to  two  millions  of  dollars,  is  to  enable  him  to  do  no  more 
than  fight  one  ship  of  equal  force,  in  which  contest  the  chances 
would  be  equal  that  he  would  not  take  or  destroy  the  enemy :  with 
all  this  expensive  experiment  for  years  of  peace  to  be  prepared  in 
case  of  war,  it  is  not  expected  that  he  should  contend  with  a  ship 
of  seventy-four  guns.  But  if  experiments,  which  are  inconsider- 
able in  their  expense  compared  to  that  of  a  fifty -four  gun-ship, 
should  prove  that  attacks  with  torpedoes  can  be  rendered  practi- 
cable and  efficient,  (and  every  reflection  teaches  me  that  they  can,) 
it  will  be  immaterial  whether  the  enemy's  vessel  be  a  forty  or  an 
eighty  gun-ship ;  two  hundred  pounds  of  powder  exploded  under 
the  bottom  of  either  will  produce  certain  destruction. 

"  Thus,  sir,  considering  this  subject  in  these  various  points  of 
view,  its  infancy,  its  prospect  of  success,  and,  if  successful,  its 
immense  importance  to  these  states,  and  to  mankind,  the  small 
establishment,  and  inconsiderable  sum  required  to  practise  and 
prove  its  utility,  compared  with  the  expense  of  other  nautical 
establishments  which  promise  only  common  and  imperfect  results, 
I  conceive  it  highly  merits  a  patient  and  candid  succession  of  ex- 
periments ;  for  which  purpose  I  feel  the  necessity  of  taking  time, 
that  I  may  have  the  ensuing  summer  to  practise  a  few  men  on 
nets,  and  such  other  obstructions  as  may  be  presented ;  which  I 
hope,  sir,  will  meet  with  your  approbation  and  that  of  every  friend 
to  science. 

"  I  unite  with  the  committee  in  opinion  that  government  should 
not  rely  on  this,  or  any  new  invention  for  defence,  until  its  utility 
be  fully  proved.  It  never  has  been  my  wish  that  swch  confidence 
should  be  placed  in  torpedoes,  until  fair  experiment  had  proved 
their  value  beyond  a  doubt. 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  with  great  respect, 
"  Your  most  obedient, 

"  ROBERT  FULTON." 

It  is  to  be  feared,  that  the  hints  which  Fulton  has  felt  for  the 
improvement  of  his  submarine  warfare,  which  he  thought  so  much 

13 


174  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

of,  will  be  neglected ;  partly  for  want  of  support,  and  that  rare  com- 
bination of  courage,  industry,  and  perseverance  which  he  possessed. 
We  must  now,  however,  revert  to  an  early  period  of  his  life,  to 
trace  from  the  beginning  the  progress  of  that  great  improvement 
in  the  arts,  for  which  we,  and  all  the  world,  are  so  much  indebted 
to  him :  we  mean  the  practical  establishment  of  navigation  by 
steam.  At  what  time  his  attention  was  first  directed  to  this  sub- 
ject,  we  do  not  know  ;  but  it  is  ascertained  that,  in  the  year  1793, 
he  had  matured  a  plan,  in  which,  even  at  that  early  day,  he  had 
great  confidence. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  how  far  Mr.  Fulton  had  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  this  subject,  and  what  experiments,  or  what  degree  of  pro- 
gress he  had  made  in  his  plans  for  steamboat  navigation,  previously 
to  the  year  1801,  when  he  and  Chancellor  Livingston  met  at  Paris. 
Among  his  papers  are  a  variety  of  drawings,  diagrams,  and  calcu- 
lations, which  evidently  relate  to  the  subject,  but  they  are  imper- 
fect ;  most  of  them  are  mutilated  by  the  accident  before  mentioned, 
and  without  dates,  so  that  they  cannot  with  certainty  be  assigned 
to  any  particular  period.  They  render  it  very  evident,  however, 
that  paddle-wheels,  as  they  are  now  used  in  the  boats  which  he 
built,  were  among  his  first  conceptions  of  the  means  by  which 
steam-vessels  might  be  propelled. 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  examine  minutely,  the  preten- 
sions of  those  who  claim  to  have  preceded  Mr.  Fulton  in  the  appli- 
cation of  steam  to  navigation.  That  it  was  not  successfully  ac- 
complished by  any  one  prior  to  the  execution  of  his  plan,  seems  to 
be  proved  by  the  acknowledged  fact,  that  though  in  several  instan- 
ces boats  had  been  made  to  move  by  the  force  of  steam,  yet  not 
one,  either  in  Europe  or  America,  had  ever  answered  any  other 
purpose  than  to  prove  an  unsuccessful  experiment. 

Mr.  Fulton,  when  he  conceived  a  mechanical  invention,  not  only 
perceived  the  effect  it  would  produce,  but  he  could  ascertain,  by 
calculation,  the  power  his  combination  would  afford,  how  far  it 
would  be  adequate  to  his  purpose,  and  what  would  be  the  requisite 
strength  of  every  part  of  the  machine :  and  though  his  numerical 
calculations  did  not  always  prove  exact,  and  required  to  be  correct- 
ed by  experiments,  yet  they  assured  him  of  general  results.  Yet 
he  never  attempted  to  put  in  practice  any  improvements  in  me- 
chanics, without  having  made  his  calculations,  drawn  his  plans, 
and  executed  his  models.  A  view  of  the  progress  of  his  improve- 
ments, as  they  are  to  be  traced  from  the  calculations,  drawings, 
and  notes  on  experiments  which  he  has  left,  would  afford  the  most 
useful  lessons ;  and  a  work  which  would  give  them  to  the  world 
in  a  proper  manner,  would  be  invaluable. 


ROBERT  FULTON.  175 

It  would  be  great  injustice  not  to  notice  with  due  respect  and 
commendation  the  enterprises  of  the  late  Chancellor  Livingston, 
who  had  so  intimate  a  connection  with  Fulton  in  the  progress 
and  establishment  of  steam  navigation.  While  Mr.  Livingston 
devoted  much  of  his  own  time  and  talents  to  the  advancement  of 
science,  and  the  promotion  of  the  public  good,  he  was  fond  of 
fostering  the  discoveries  of  others.  The  resources  of  his  ample 
fortune  were  afforded  with  great  liberality,  whenever  he  could 
apply  them  to  the  support  and  encouragement  of  genius.  He 
entertained  very  clear  conceptions  of  what  would  be  the  great 
advantages  of  steamboats,  on  the  large  and  extensive  rivers  of 
the  United  States.  He  had  applied  himself  with  uncommon 
perseverance,  and  at  great  expense,  to  constructing  vessels  and  ma- 
chinery for  that  kind  of  navigation.  As  early  as  1798,  he  be- 
lieved that  he  had  accomplished  his  object,  and  represented  to  the 
legislature  of  New  York,  that  he  was  possessed  of  a  mode  of 
applying  the  steam  engine  to  propel  a  boat  on  new  and  advan- 
tageous principles  ;  but  that  he  was  deterred  from  carrying  it  into 
effect,  by  the  uncertainty  and  hazard  of  a  very  expensive  experi- 
ment, unless  he  could  be  assured  of  an  exclusive  advantage  from 
it,  should  it  be  found  successful. 

The  legislature,  in  March,  1798,  passed  an  act,  vesting  Mr. 
Livingston  with  the  exclusive  right  and  privilege  of  navigating  all 
kinds  of  boats,  which  might  be  propelled  by  the  force  of  fire  or 
steam,  on  all  the  waters  within  the  territory  or  jurisdiction  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  for  the  term  of  twenty  years  from  the  pass- 
ing of  the  act ;  upon  condition  that  he  should,  within  a  twelve- 
month, build  such  a  boat,  the  mean  of  whose  progress  should  not 
be  less  than  four  miles  an  hour. 

Mr.  Livingston,  immediately  after  the  passing  of  this  act,  built 
a  boat  of  about  thirty  tons  burden,  which  was  propelled  by  steam ; 
but  as  she  was  incompetent  to  fulfil  the  condition  of  the  law,  she 
was  abandoned. 

Soon  after  he  entered  into  a  contract  with  Fulton,  by  which  it 
was,  among  other  things,  agreed,  that  a  patent  should  be  taken 
out  in  the  United  States  in  Mr.  Fulton's  name,  which  Mr.  Liv- 
ingston well  knew  could  not  be  done  without  Mr.  Fulton's  taking 
an  oath  that  the  improvement  was  solely  his. 

We  have  seen  that  Mr.  Fulton's  mind,  previous  to  his  return 
to  this  country,  had  long  been  directed  to  the  project  of  propelling 
boats  by  steam. 

Upon  Chancellor  Livingston's  arrival  in  France,  Fulton  was 
induced  to  revive  his  thoughts  of  this  invention,  by  his  represen- 


176  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

tations  of  the  advantages  which  would  be  derived  from  naviga- 
tion by  steam  in  this  country,  by  his  account  of  the  approaches 
to  success  which  he  had  made  in  his  experiments,  and  by  the 
pecuniary  support  which  the  chancellor's  wealth  enabled  him  to 
offer.  Mr.  Fulton  began  a  course  of  calculations  upon  the  re- 
sistance of  water,  the  necessary  force  to  move  a  body  through  it, 
upon  the  most  advantageous  form  of  the  body  to  be  moved,  and 
upon  the  different  means  of  propelling  vessels  which  had  been 
previously  attempted  ;  and  after  a  variety  of  calculations,  he  re- 
jected  the  plan  proposed  of  using  paddles  or  oars,  likewise  that 
of  duck's  feet,  which  open  as  they  are  pushed  out,  and  shut  as 
they  are  drawn  in,  and  also,  that  of  forcing  water  out  at  the  stern 
of  the  vessel ;  retaining  two  methods  only,  as  worthy  of  experi- 
ment, namely,  endless  chains  with  resisting  boards  upon  them, 
and  the  paddle-wheel.  The  latter  was  found  to  be  the  most 
promising,  and  finally  adopted,  after  a  number  of  trials  with  his 
models,  on  a  little  rivulet  which  runs  through  the  village  of 
Plombieres,  to  which  place  he  had  retired  to  pursue  his  expert 
rnents  without  interruption.  This  was  in  the  spring  of  1802. 

It  was  now  determined  to  build  an  experimental  boat,  which 
was  completed  in  the  spring  of  1803  ;  but  when  Mr.  Fulton  was 
on  the  point  of  making  an  experiment  with  her,  an  accident 
happened  to  the  boat,  the  wood-work  not  having  been  framed 
strong  enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  machinery,  and  the  agita- 
tion of  the  river.  The  accident  did  the  machinery  very  little 
injury  ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  build  the  boat  almost,  entirely 
anew.  She  was  completed  in  July ;  her  length  was  sixty-six. 
feet,  and  she  was  eight  feet  wide.  Early  in  August,  Mr.  Fulton 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  French  National  Institute,  inviting  them 
to  witness  a  trial  of  his  boat,  which  was  made  in  their  presence, 
and  in  the  presence  of  a  great  multitude  of  the  Parisians.  The- 
experiment  was  entirely  satisfactory  to  Mr.  Fulton,  though  the 
boat  did  not  move  altogether  with  as  much  speed  as  he  expected. 
But  he  imputed  her  moving  so  slowly  to  the  extremely  defective 
fabrication  of  the  machinery,  and  to  imperfections  which  were  to 
be  expected  in  the  first  experiment  with  so  complicated  a  machine,, 
but  which  he  saw  might  be  easily  remedied. 

Such  entire  confidence  did  he  acquire  from  this  experiment, 
that  immediately  afterwards  he  wrote  to  Messrs.  Watt  and  Bolton, 
of  Birmingham,  England,  ordering  certain  parts  of  a  steam 
engine  to  be  made  for  him,  and  sent  to  America.  He  did  not 
disclose  to  them  for  what  purpose  the  engine  was  intended  ;  but 
his  directions  were  such  as  would  produce  the  pa.rts  of  an  engine,, 


ROBERT  FULTON.  177 

that  might  be  put  together  within  a  compass  suited  for  a  boat. 
Mr.  Livingston  had  written  to  his  friends  in  this  country,  and 
through  their  interference,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  legislature 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  on  the  5th  of  April,  1803,  by  which 
the  rights  ajid  exclusive  privileges  of  navigating  all  the  waters 
of  that  state,  by  vessels  propelled  by  fire  or  steam,  granted  to 
Mr.  Livingston  by  the  act  of  1798,  which  we  have  before  men- 
tioned, were  extended  to  Mr.  Livingston  and  Mr.  Fulton,  for  the 
term  of  twenty  years  from  the  date  of  the  new  act.  By  this  law, 
the  time  of  producing  proof  of  the  practicability  of  propelling 
by  steam  a  boat  of  twenty  tons  capacity,  at  the  rate  of  four 
miles  an  hour,  with  and  against  the  ordinary  current  of  the  Hud- 
son,  was  extended  two  years,  and  by  a  subsequent  law,  the  time 
was  enlarged  to  1807. 

Very  soon  after  Mr.  Fulton's  arrival  in  New  York,  he  commen- 
ced building  his  first  American  boat.  While  she  was  constructing, 
he  found  that  her  expenses  would  greatly  exceed  his  calculations. 
He  endeavored  to  lessen  the  pressure  on  his  own  finances,  by  offer- 
ing one  third  of  the  right,  for  a  proportionate  contribution  to  the 
expense.  It  was  generally  known  that  he  made  this  offer,  but  n<? 
one  was  then  willing  to  afford  this  aid  to  his  enterprise,  although 
so  many,  since  its  success,  have  been  eagerly  grasping  at  its  profits. 

In  the  spring  of  1807,  Fulton's  first  American  boat  was  launch- 
ed from  the  ship-yard  of  Charles  Brown,  on  the  East  river.  The 
engine  from  England  was  put  on  board  of  her,  and  in  August  she 
was  completed,  and  was  moved  by  her  machinery  from  her  birth- 
place to  the  Jersey  shore.  Mr.  Livingston  and  Mr.  Fulton  had 
invited  many  of  their  friends  to  witness  the  first  trial,  among  whom 
were  those  learned  men,  Dr.  Mitchill  and  Dr.  M'Neven,  to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  some  account  of  what  passed  on  this  occasion. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  surprise  and  admiration  of  all  who  wit- 
nessed the  experiment.  The  minds  of  the  most  incredulous  were 
changed  in  a  few  minutes.  Before  the  boat  had  made  the  progress 
of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  the  greatest  unbeliever  must  have  been 
converted.  The  man  who,  while  he  looked  on  the  expensive  ma- 
chine, thanked  his  stars  that  he  had  more  wisdom  than  to  waste 
his  money  on  such  idle  schemes,  changed  the  expression  of  his 
features  as  the  boat  moved  from  the  wharf  and  gained  her  speed, 
and  his  complacent  expression  gradually  stiffened  into  one  of  won- 
der. The  jeers  of  the  ignorant,  who  had  neither  sense  nor  feeling 
enough  to  suppress  their  contemptuous  ridicule  and  rude  jokes, 
were  silenced  for  a  moment  by  a  vulgar  astonishment,  which  depriv- 
ed them  of  the  power  of  utterance,  till  the  triumph  of  genius  extorted 

13* 


173  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

from  the  incredulous  multitude  which  crowded  the  shores,  shouts 
and  acclamations  of  congratulation  and  applause. 

The  boat  had  not  been  long  under  way,  when  Fulton  ordered 
her  engine  to  be  stopped.  Though  her  performance  so  far  exceed- 
ed the  expectations  of  every  other  person,  and  no  one  but  himself 
thought  she  could  be  improved,  he  immediately  perceived  that  there 
was  an  error  in  the  construction  of  her  water-wheels.  He  had 
their  diameters  lessened,  so  that  the  buckets  took  less  hold  of  the 
water,  and  when  they  were  again  put  in  motion,  it  was  manifest 
that  the  alteration  had  increased  the  speed  of  the  boat.  It  may 
well  be  said,  that  the  man  of  genius  and  knowledge  has  a  sense 
beyond  those  which  are  common  to  others,  or  that  he  sees  with 
different  eyes.  How  many  would  have  gazed  on  these  ill-propor- 
tioned wheels,  without  perceiving  that  they  were  imperfect ! 

This  boat,  which  was  called  the  Clermont,  soon  after  made  a 
trip  to  Albany.  Mr.  Fulton  gives  the  following  account  of  this 
voyage  in  a  letter  to  his  friend,  Mr.  Barlow.  "  My  steamboat  voy- 
age to  Albany  and  back,  has  turned  out  rather  more  favorable  than 
I  had  calculated.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  Albany  is  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  ;  I  ran  it  up  in  thirty-two  hours,  and  down 
in  thirty.  I  had  a  light  breeze  against  me  the  whole  way,  both 
going  and  coming,  and  the  voyage  has  been  performed  wholly  by 
the  power  of  the  steam  engine.  I  overtook  many  sloops  and 
schooners  beating  to  windward,  and  parted  with  them  as  if  they 
had  been  at  anchor.  The  power  of  propelling  boats  by  steam  is 
now  fully  proved.  The  morning  I  left  New  York,  there  were  not 
perhaps  thirty  persons  in  the  city,  who  believed  that  the  boat  would 
ever  move  one  mile  an  hour,  or  be  of  the  least  utility  ;  and  while 
we  were  putting  off  from  the  wharf,  which  was  crowded  with  spec- 
tators, I  heard  a  number  of  sarcastic  remarks.  This  is  the  way 
in  which  ignorant  men  compliment  what  they  call  philosophers 
and  projectors.  Having  employed  much-  time,  money,  and  zeal,  in 
accomplishing  this  work,  it  gives  me,  as  it  will  you,  great  pleasure 
to  see  it  fully  answer  my  expectations.  It  will  give  a  cheap  and 
quick  conveyance  to  the  merchandise  on  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,. 
and  other  great  rivers,  which  are  now  laying  open  their  treasures 
to  the  enterprise  of  our  countrymen ;  and  although  the  prospect  of 
personal  emolument  has  been  some  inducement  to  me,  yet  I  feel 
infinitely  more  pleasure  in  reflecting  on  the  immense  advantage 
that  my  country  will  derive  from  the  invention,11  &c. 

Soon  after  this  successful  voyage,  the  Hudson  boat  was  adver- 
tised and  established  as  a  regular  passage-boat  between  New  York 
and  Albany.  She,  however,  in  the  course  of  the  season,  met  with 
several  accidents,  from  the  hostility  of  those  engaged  in  the  ordi- 


ROBERT  FULTON.  181 

nary  navigation  of  the  river,  and  from  defects  in  her  machinery ; 
the  greatest  of  which  was,  having  her  water-wheel  shafts  of  cast 
iron,  which  was  insufficient  to  sustain  the  great  power  applied  to 
them.  The  wheels  also  were  hung  without  any  support  for  the 
outward  end  of  the  shaft,  which  is  now  supplied  by  what  are  called 
the  wheel-guards. 

At  the  session  of  1808,  a  law  was  passed  to  prolong  the  time 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  thirty  years  ;  it  also  declared  combinations 
to  destroy  the  boat,  or  wilful  attempts  to  injure  her,  public  offences, 
punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Notwithstanding  her  misfortunes,  the  boat  continued  to  run  as 
a  packet,  always  loaded  with  passengers,  for  the  remainder  of  the 
summer.  In  the  course  of  the  ensuing  winter  she  was  enlarged, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1808,  she  again  commenced  running  as  a 
packet-boat,  and  continued  it  through  the  season.  Several  other 
boats  were  soon  built  for  the  Hudson  river,  and  also  for  steamboat 
companies  formed  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

On  the  llth  of  February,  1809,  Mr.  Fulton  took  out  a  patent 
for  his  inventions  in  navigation  by  steam,  and  on  the  9th  of  Feb. 
ruary,  1811,  he  obtained  a  second  patent  for  some  improvements 
in  his  boats  and  machinery. 

It  having  been  found  that  the  laws,  granting  to  Livingston  and 
Fulton  exclusive  privileges,  were  insufficient  to  secure  their  enjoy- 
ment, the  legislature  of  New  York,  in  1811,  passed  a  supplement- 
ary act,  giving  certain  summary  remedies  against  those  who  should 
contravene  the  protecting  laws.  The  act,  however,  excepts  two 
boats  which  were  then  navigating  the  Hudson,  and  one  which  ran 
on  Lake  Champlain  in  opposition  to  Livingston  and  Fulton  :  with- 
out these  exceptions,  the  law,  as  to  these  boats,  would  have  been 
ex  post  facto.  In  respect  to  these,  therefore,  the  parties  were  left 
to  the  same  remedies  as  before  passing  the  last  act.  The  opposi- 
tion boats  on  the  Hudson,  were  at  first  to  have  been  propelled  by 
a  pendulum,  which  some  thought  would  give  a  greater  power  than 
steam ;  but  on  launching  their  vessel,  they  found  the  machinery 
was  not  so  easily  moved  as  when  she  was  on  the  stocks.  Having 
found  by  experiment  that  a  pendulum  would  not  supply  the  place 
of  steam,  and  knowing  no  other  way  of  applying  steam  than  that 
they  saw  practised  in  the  Fulton  boats,  they  adopted  all  their  ma- 
chinery, with  some  small  alterations,  with  no  other  view  than  to 
give  a  pretence  for  claiming  to  be  the  inventors  of  improvements 
on  steamboats. 

Messrs.  Livingston  and  Fulton  attempted  to  vindicate  their  rights, 
and  to  stop  these  boats,  by  an  application  to  the  Circuit  Court  of 
the  United  States  for  an  injunction ;  but  the  judge  decided  that  he 


182  AMERICAN    MECHANICS. 

had  not  jurisdiction  of  the  case.  They  then  made  application  to 
the  Court  of  Chancery  of  the  state,  but  the  Chancellor,  after  hear- 
ing an  argument  for  several  days,  refused  to  grant  an  injunction. 
An  appeal  to  the  Court  of  Errors,  composed  of  the  Senate  of  the 
state,  and  the  five  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  unanimously  re- 
versed the  decision  of  the  Chancellor,  and  ordered  a  perpetual 
injunction  ;  so  that  the  boats  could  no  more  be  moved  with  steam, 
than  they  could  by  a  pendulum.  The  merits  of  the  members  of 
this  Pendulum  Company  were  contrasted  with  those  of  Fulton,  by 
Mr.  Emmet,  the  counsel  for  the  appellants.  He  described  them 
as  "  men  who  never  wasted  health  and  life  in  midnight  vigils,  and 
painful  study,  who  never  dreamt  of  science  in  the  broken  slumbers 
of  an  exhausted  mind,  and  who  bestowed  on  the  construction  of  a 
steamboat  just  as  much  mathematical  calculation  and  philosphical 
research,  as  in  the  purchase  of  a  sack  of  wheat,  or  a  barrel  of 
ashes.11 

About  the  year  1812,  two  steam  ferry-boats  were  built  under 
the  directions  of  Mr.  Fulton  for  crossing  the  Hudson  river,  and 
one  of  the  same  description  for  the  East  river.  These  boats  were 
what  are  called  twin-boats  ;  each  of  them  being  two  complete  hulls 
united  by  a  deck  or  bridge.  They  were  sharp  at  both  ends,  and 
moved  equally  well  with  either  end  foremost ;  so  that  they  crossed 
and  re-crossed  without  losing  any  time  by  turning  about.  He  con- 
trived, with  great  ingenuity,  floating  docks  for  the  reception  of  these 
boats,  and  a  means  by  which  they  are  brought  to  them  without  a 
shock. 

From  the  time  the  first  boat  was  put  in  motion  till  the  death 
of  Mr.  Fulton,  the  art  of  navigating  by  steam  was  fast  advancing 
to  that  perfection  of  which  he  believed  it  capable :  for  some  time 
the  boat  performed  each  successive  trip  with  increased  speed,  and 
every  year  improvements  were  made.  The  last  boat  built  by  him 
was  invariably  the  best,  the  most  convenient,  and  the  swiftest. 

The  following  anecdote  shows  the  quickness  of  apprehension, 
as  well  as  the  practical  knowledge  of  Mr.  Fulton.  It  will  be  re- 
membered by  some  of  our  readers,  how  long,  and  how  successfully, 
Redheffer  had  deluded  the  Pennsylvanians  by  his  perpetual  motion. 
One  of  these  machines  was  put  into  operation  in  New  York  in 
1813.  Mr.  Fulton  was  a  perfect  unbeliever  in  RedhefFei^s  dis- 
covery, and  although  hundreds  were  daily  paying  their  dollar  to 
see  the  wonder,  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  follow  the  crowd. 
After  a  few  days,  however,  he  was  induced  by  some  of  his  friends 
to  visit  the  machine.  It  was  in  an  isolated  house  in  the  suburbs 
of  the  city.  In  a  very  short  time  after  Mr.  Fulton  had  entered 
the  room  in  which  it  was  exhibited,  he  exclaimed,  "  Why,  this  is  a 


ROBERT  FULTON.  183 

crank  motion.1'  His  ear  enabled  him  to  distinguish  that  the  ma. 
chine  was  moved  by  a  crank,  which  always  gives  an  unequal  power, 
and  therefore  an  unequal  velocity  in  the  course  of  each  revolution  ; 
and  a  nice  and  practical  ear  may  perceive  that  the  sound  is  not 
uniform.  If  the  machine  had  been  kept  in  motion  by  what  was 
its  ostensible  moving  power,  it  must  have  had  an  equable  rotary 
motion,  and  the  sound  would  have  been  always  the  same. 

After  some  little  conversation  with  the  show-man,  Mr.  Fulton 
did  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  the  machine  was  an  imposition, 
and  to  tell  the  gentleman  that  he  was  an  impostor.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  anger  and  bluster  which  these  charges  excited,  he  assured 
the  company  that  the  thing  was  a  cheat,  and  that  if  they  would 
support  him  in  the  attempt,  he  would  detect  it  at  the  risk  of  pay- 
ing any  penalty  if  he  failed.  Having  obtained  the  assent  of  all 
who  were  present,  he  began  by  knocking  away  some  very  thin 
pieces  of  lath,  which  appeared  to  be  no  part  of  the  machinery,  but 
to  go  from  the  frame  of  the  machine  to  the  wall  of  the  room, 
merely  to  keep  the  corner  posts  of  the  machine  steady.  It  was 
found  that  a  catgut  string  was  led  through  one  of  these  laths  and 
the  frame  of  the  machine,  to  the  head  of  the  upright  shaft  of  a 
principal  wheel ;  that  the  catgut  was  conducted  through  the  wall, 
and  along  the  floors  of  the  second  story  to  a  back  cock-loft,  at  a 
distance  of  a  number  of  yards  from  the  room  which  contained  the 
machine,  and  there  was  found  the  moving  power.  This  was  a 
poor  old  wretch  with  an  immense  beard,  and  all  the  appearance 
of  having  suffered  a  long  imprisonment ;  who,  when  they  broke 
in  upon  him,  was  unconscious  of  what  had  happened  below,  and 
who,  while  he  was  seated  on  a  stool,  gnawing  a  crust,  was  with 
one  hand  turning  a  crank.  The  proprietor  of  the  perpetual  mo- 
tion soon  disappeared.  The  mob  demolished  his  machine,  the 
destruction  of  which  immediately  put  a  stop  to  that  which  had 
been,  for  so  long  a  time,  and  to  so  much  profit,  exhibited  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  merits  of  this  exposure  will  appear  more  striking, 
when  we  consider  that  many  men  of  ingenuity,  learning,  and  sci- 
ence, had  seen  the  machine :  some  had  written  on  the  subject ; 
not  a  few  of  these  were  his  zealous  advocates,  and  others,  though 
they  were  afraid  to  admit  that  he  had  made  a  discovery  which 
violated  what  were  believed  to  be  the  established  laws  of  nature, 
appeared  also  afraid  to  deny  what  the  incessant  motion  of  his 
wheels  and  weights  seemed  to  prove. 

Mr.  Fulton  had  enlarged  views  of  the  advantages  of  internal 
improvements,  both  as  regards  commerce,  and  the  stability  of  the 
union,  by  a  free  intercourse  between  the  states.  As  early  as  1807, 
he  pointed  out  the  practicability  of  opening  a  communication 


184  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

between  the  great  lakes  and  the  Hudson,  and  in  1811,  he  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  to  explore  the  route  of  an  inland  navi- 
gation, from  Hudson  river  to  Lake  Erie.  His  calculations  of  the 
advantages  of  the  project  are  very  interesting,  and  may  be  found 
appended  to  Golden ?s  Life  of  Fulton. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1814,  a  number  of  the 
citizens  of  New  York,  alarmed  at  the  exposed  situation  of  their 
harbor,  had  assembled  with  a  view  to  consider  whether  some 
measures  might  not  be  taken  to  aid  the  government  in  its  protec- 
tion. This  assembly  had,  in  fact,  been  invited  by  some  knowledge 
of  Mr.  Fulton's  plans  for  submarine  attack,  and  of  his  contempla- 
ting other  means  of  defence.  They  deputed  a  number  of  gentle- 
men to  act  for  them,  and  these  were  called  the  coast  and  harbor 
committee.  Mr.  Fulton  exhibited  to  this  committee  the  model  and 
plans  for  a  vessel  of  war,  to  be  propelled  by  steam,  capable  of 
carrying  a  strong  battery,  with  furnaces  for  red-hot  shot,  and  which, 
he  represented,  would  move  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour. 
The  confidence  of  the  committee  in  this  design  was  confirmed  by 
the  opinions  of  many  of  our  most  distinguished  naval  command- 
ers, which  he  had  obtained  in  writing,  and  exhibited  to  the  com- 
mittee. They  pointed  out  many  advantages  which  a  steam-vessel 
of  war  would  possess  over  those  with  sails  only. 

The  national  legislature  passed  a  law  in  March,  1814,  author, 
izing  the  president  of  the  United  States  to  cause  to  be  built,  equip- 
ped, and  employed,  one  or  more  floating  batteries  for  the  defence 
of  the  waters  of  the  United  States.  A  sub-committee  of  five  gen- 
tlemen was  appointed  to  superintend  the  building  of  the  proposed 
vessel,  and  Mr.  Fulton,  whose  soul  indeed  animated  the  whole 
enterprise,  was  appointed  the  engineer.  In  June,  1814,  the  keel 
of  this  novel  and  mighty  engine  was  laid,  and  in  October,  she  was 
launched  from  the  yard  of  Adam  and  Noah  Brown,  her  able  and 
active  architects.  The  scene  exhibited  on  this  occasion  was  mag- 
nificent. It  happened  on  one  of  our  bright  autumnal  days.  Mul- 
titudes of  spectators  crowded  the  surrounding  shores,  and  were 
seen  upon  the  hills  which  limited  the  beautiful  prospect.  The 
river  and  bay  were  filled  with  vessels  of  war,  dressed  in  all  their 
variety  of  colors,  in  compliment  to  the  occasion.  By  May,  1815, 
her  engine  was  put  on  board,  and  she  was  so  far  completed  as  to 
afford  an  opportunity  of  trying  her  machinery.  But,  unhappily, 
before  this  period,  the  mind  that  had  conceived  and  combined  it  was 
gone.  On  the  fourth  of  July,  in  the  same  year,  the  steam-frigate 
made  a  passage  to  the  ocean  and  back,  a  distance  of  fifty-three 
miles,  in  eight  hours  and  twenty  minutes,  by  the  mere  force  of 
steam.  In  September,  she  made  another  passage  to  the  sea,  and 


ROBERT  FULTON.  185 

having  at  this  time  the  weight  of  her  whole  armament  on  board, 
she  went  at  the  rate  of  five  and  a  half  miles  an  hour,  upon  an 
average,  with  and  against  the  tide.  The  superintending  commit- 
tee gave,  in  their  report,  a  full  description  of  the  Fulton  the  First, 
the  honored  name  this  vessel  bore. 

We  now  come  to  mention  the  last  work  in  which  the  active  and 
ingenious  mind  of  Mr.  Fulton  was  engaged.  This  was  a  project 
for  the  modification  of  his  submarine  boat.  He  presented  a  model 
of  this  vessel  to  the  government,  by  which  it  was  approved  ;  and 
under  the  authority  of  the  executive,  he  commenced  building  one ; 
but  before  the  hull  was  entirely  finished,  his  country  had  to  lament 
his  death,  and  the  mechanics  he  had  employed  were  incapable  of 
proceeding  without  him. 

During  the  whole  time  that  Mr.  Fulton  had  thus  been  devoting 
his  talents  to  the  service  of  his  country,  he  had  been  harassed  by 
lawsuits,  and  controversies  with  those  who  were  violating  his  pat- 
ent rights,  or  intruding  upon  his  exclusive  grants.  The  state  of 
New  Jersey  had  passed  a  law  which  operated  against  Mr.  Fulton, 
without  being  of  much  advantage  to  those  interested  in  its  passage ; 
inasmuch  as  the  laws  of  New  York  prevented  any  but  Fulton's 
boats  to  approach  the  city  of  New  York.  Its  only  operation  was 
to  stop  a  boat  owned  in  New  York,  which  had  been  several  years 
running  to  New  Brunswick,  under  a  license  from  Messrs.  Living- 
ston and  Fulton.  A  bold  attempt  was  therefore  made  to  induce  the 
legislature  of  the  state  of  New  York,  to  repeal  the  laws  which 
they  had  passed  for  the  protection  of  their  exclusive  grant  to  Liv- 
ingston and  Fulton.  The  committee  reported  a  law  which  they 
said  might  be  passed  consistently  with  good  faith,  honor,  and  jus- 
tice !  This  report  being  made  to  the  house,  it  was  prevailed  upon 
to  be  less  precipitate  than  the  committee  had  been.  It  gave  time, 
which  the  committee  would  not  do,  for  Mr.  Fulton  to  be  sent  for 
from  New  York.  The  senate  and  assembly  in  joint  session  exam- 
ined witnesses,  and  heard  him  and  the  petitioner,  by  counsel.  The 
result  was,  that  the  legislature  refused  to  repeal  the  prior  law,  or 
to  pass  any  act  on  the  subject.  The  legislature  of  the  state  of 
New  Jersey,  also,  repealed  their  law,  which  left  Mr.  Fulton  in  the 
full  enjoyment  of  his  rights.  '  But  alas  !  this  enjoyment  was  of  very 
short  duration  ;  for  on  returning  from  Trenton,  after  this  last  trial, 
he  was  exposed  on  the  Hudson,  which  was  very  full  of  ice,  for 
several  hours.  He  had  not  a  constitution  to  encounter  such  expo- 
sure, and  upon  his  return,  found  himself  much  indisposed  from  the 
effects  of  it.  He  had  at  that  time  great  anxiety  about  the  steam- 
frigate,  and,  after  confining  himself  for  a  few  days,  he  went  to  give 
"iperintendence  to  the  artificers  employed  about  her.  Forget- 


186  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

ting  his  debilitated  state  of  health  in  the  interest  he  took  in  what 
was  doing  on  the  frigate,  he  remained  too  long  exposed,  in  a  bad 
day,  to  the  weather  on  her  decks.  He  soon  felt  the  effects  of  this 
imprudence.  His  indisposition  returned  upon  him  with  such 
violence  as  to  confine  him  to  his  bed.  His  disorder  increased, 
and  on  the  24th  day  of  February,  1815,  terminated  his  valuable 
life. 

It  was  not  known  that  Mr.  Fulton1s  illness  was  dangerous,  till 
a  very  short  time  before  his  death,  which  was  unexpected  by  his 
friends,  and  still  more  so  by  the  community.  As  soon  as  it  was 
known,  all  means  were  taken  to  testify,  publicly,  the  universal  re- 
gret at  his  loss,  and  respect  for  his  memory.  The  newspapers 
that  announced  the  event,  had  those  marks  of  mourning,  which 
are  usual  in  our  country  when  they  notice  the  death  of  public  char- 
acters. The  corporation  of  the  city  of  New  York,  the  different 
literary  institutions  and  other  societies,  assembled  and  passed  res- 
olutions expressing  their  estimation  of  his  worth,  and  regret  at  his 
loss.  They  also  determined  to  attend  his  funeral,  and  that  the  mem- 
bers should  wear  badges  of  mourning  for  a  certain  time.  As  soon 
as  the  legislature,  which  was  then  in  session  at  Albany,  heard  of 
the  death  of  Mr.  Fulton,  they  expressed  their  participation  in  the 
general  sentiment,  by  resolving  that  the  members  of  both  houses 
should  wear  mourning  for  some  weeks. 

This  is  the  only  instance,  we  believe,  of  such  public  testimonials 
of  regret,  esteem,  and  respect  being  offered  on  the  death  of  a  pri- 
vate citizen,  who  never  held  any  office,  and  was  only  distinguished 
by  his  virtues,  his  genius,  and  the  employment  of  his  talents. 

In  the  year  1806,  Mr.  Fulton  married  Miss  Harriet  Livingston, 
a  daughter  of  Walter  Livingston,  Esq.,  a  relative  of  his  enterpris- 
ing associate,  Chancellor  Livingston.  He  left  four  children ;  one 
son,  Robert  Barlow  Fulton,  and  three  daughters. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  proper  to  make  a  few  remarks  in  rela- 
tion to  the  labors  of  Mr.  Fulton.  He  was  not  the  original  inventor 
of  steamboats,  because  many  had  made  them  before  him  ;  neither 
was  he  the  perfector,  because  the  thing  is  not  yet  perfect.  What 
was  he  then  ?  Why,  he  was  the  first  to  gain  the  prize  ;  he  it  was 
who  satisfied  the  law  ;  and  since  his  boat  went  from  New  York  to 
Albany,  there  has  always  been  a  regular  succession  of  steamboats ; 
so  that  he  was  the  first  to  bring  them  into  public  use,  and  by  his 
genius  and  perseverance,  he  so  improved  them  as  to  lay  a  solid 
foundation  for  those  who  came  after  him  to  build  upon.  Professor 
Renwick  has  given  a  concise  history  of  the  invention  of  the  steam- 
boat, in  his  Treatise  on  Steam  Engines  ;  and  has  taken  the  right 
view  of  the  subject,  in  our  opinion,  in  relation  to  Mr.  Fulton.  Al 


ROBERT  FULTON.  187 

though  there  may  be  those  in  our  own  country,  as  well  as  in  Eng- 
land and  France,  who  are  unwilling  to  give  Mr.  Fulton  his  full  share 
of  praise,  on  account  of  thenlselves  or  their  relations  having  been 
interested  in  this  invention,  yet  there  are  others  in  all  these  coun- 
tries who  are  willing  to  do  him  justice.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  a  memoir  published  in  Paris  some  years  ago  ;  it  is  from  the 
pen  of  Mr.  Frederick  Royou.  "  I  willingly  applaud  the  patriotic 
sentiment  by  which  M.  de  JoufFroy  desired  that  the  honor  of  so 
great  an  invention  should  be  attributed  to  a  Frenchman.  Unhap- 
pily, however,  it  is  here  a  question,  much  less  of  an  invention,  than 
of  the  application  of  a  power  already  known.  Besides,  Fulton 
has  never  claimed  the  merit  of  being  the  inventor  in  this  sense. 
The  application  which  he  made,  may  be  considered  as  ordinary 
and  common  in  its  nature,  because  it  was  pointed  out  by  so  many 
scientific  men  ;  but  the  means  of  application  were  necessary,  and 
Fulton  has  procured  them."  We  extract  the  following  from  the 
English  Penny  Magazine,  which,  it  is  said,  has  a  million  of  read- 
ers. "  Fulton,  the  inventor  of  the  steamboat  in  North  America, 
which,  in  a  few  years,  has  produced  such  an  astonishing  change  in 
that  vast  country,  by  connecting  together  its  most  distant  states, 
sustained  the  mortification  of  not  being  comprehended  by  his  coun- 
trymen. He  was,  therefore,  treated  as  an  idle  projector,  whose 
schemes  would  be  useless  to  the  world  and  ruinous  to  himself.11 
And  again,  we  find  in  the  same  work  the  following :  "  We  cannot 
enter  into  a  controversy  whether  Fulton,  or  Mr.  William  Syming- 
ton, was  the  inventor  of  the  steamboat.  What  has  been  said  of 
Arkwright  may  apply  to  Fulton  : — '  The  several  inventions  which 
his  patent  embraced,  whether  they  were  his  or  not,  would,  proba- 
bly, but  for  him,  have  perished  with  their  authors ;  none  of  whom, 
except  himself,  had  the  determination  and  courage  to  face  the  mul- 
tiplied fatigues  and  dangers  that  lay  in  the  way  of  achieving  a  prac- 
tical exemplification  of  what  they  had  conceived  in  their  minds.1 " 

Fulton  may  be  compared  with  Watt.  Both  were  persevering, 
and  had  great  inventive  powers ;  and  both  were  fortunate  alike  in 
obtaining  the  confidence  and  support  of  patrons,  who  were  gener- 
ous, and  who  possessed  ample  fortunes.  In  this  relation  stood 
Mr.  Bolton,  and  Chancellor  Livingston. 

14 


JACOB  PERKINS. 


Birth. — Is  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith. — Death  of  his  employer. — Invents  a  supe- 
rior method  of  plating  shoe-buckles. — Prosecutes  the  manufacture  of  gold 
beads  and  shoe-buckles. — Early  reputation. — Makes  dies  for  the  Massachu- 
setts mint. — Invents  the  nail-machine. — Through  the  mismanagement  of 
others,  is  reduced  to  poverty. — Harsh  treatment  by  his  creditors. — Inventions 
for  the  prevention  of  counterfeiting. — Opinion  of  public  prosecutors  concerning 
them. — Removes  to  Philadelphia. — Goes  out  to  England. — Proves  the  com- 
pressibility of  fluids. — Pleometer. — Bathometer. — Improvements  in  hardening 
and  softening  steel. — Its  application  to  the  printing  of  calicoes  and  transferring 
of  engravings. — Indenting  cylinders. — Watt's  steam  artillery. — Jonathan  Horn- 
blower's  steam  rocket. — M.  Gerard's  plan  for  the  defence  of  Paris. — Perkins' 
experiments  with  his  steam-gun. — Conclusion. 

THIS  individual,*  who  has  acquired,  probably,  more  transatlantic 
fame  than  any  American  mechanician  now  living,  is  a  lineal  de- 
scendant of  the  Puritans,  and  was  born  in  Newburyport,  Mass., 
July,  1766.  Early  showing  a  fondness  for  mechanics,  his  parents 
placed  him,  when  thirteen  years  of  age,  as  an  apprentice  to  a 
goldsmith. 

Three  years  after,  he  lost  his  master :  this,  however,  did  not 
prevent  him  from  continuing  in  the  business.  Gold  beads  and 
shoe-buckles  were  then  in  fashion ;  and  having  invented  a  new 
and  superior  method  of  plating  the  latter,  he  prosecuted  the  manu- 
facture of  these  articles  with  considerable  profit. 

Perkins  early  acquired  a  reputation  for  ingenuity;  for,  before 
the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  Massachusetts  had  a  mint 
for  copper  coin,  and,  when  he  was  only  about  twenty-one,  the 
agent  of  this  establishment  hearing  of  his  skill,  sent  for  him  to 
make  dies.  His  success,  happily,  proved  that  the  confidence  was 
not  misplaced.  Not  long  after  was  invented  his  famous  nail- 
machine,  which  cut  and  headed  nails  at  one  operation.  This  in- 
vention was  considered  very  useful,  and  promised  great  profits : 
unfortunately,  he  was  associated  with  those  who  had  no  property, 
and,  by  their  mismanagement,  he  not  only  lost  the  fruits  of  several 
years1  hard  labor,  but  all  he  was  worth ;  and,  in  addition  to  these 
troubles,  he  was  treated  by  his  creditors  with  unwarrantable 
harshness. 

*  American  Magazine,  Lardner's  Cyclopaedia,  &c.  &c. 


JACOB  PERKINS. 


JACOB  PERKINS.  191 

His  next  invention  appears  to  have  been  the  preparation  of  a 
device  for  preventing  the  counterfeiting  of  bank  bills,  which  had, 
at  that  time,  become  a  very  serious  and  extensive  evil, — one,  too, 
which  the  guardians  of  the  public  weal  almost  despaired  of  remedy, 
ing.  He  first  made  a  stamp  on  the  bills,  which  was  of  some  bene- 
fit, for  it  was  seldom  imitated.  In  1809,  the  check  plate  was  pre- 
pared, which  proved  the  best  security  then  known  ;  and  a  law  was 
passed  in  Massachusetts,  requiring  all  the  banks  to  use  it.  Some 
years  after  it  was  repealed,  or  was  disregarded  by  the  banks,  much 
to  the  regret  of  many.  Public  prosecutors  have  declared  that  they 
never  knew  a  good  counterfeit  of  it. 

Perkins  resided  several  years  at  Philadelphia,  when  at  that  time 
(some  thirty  years  ago)  this  city  was  much  in  advance  in  the  arts 
of  any  other  place  in  our  country.  Some  ten  or  twelve  years 
after,  he  removed  to  England.  This  was,  probably,  from  the  hope 
of  finding  more  able  patrons,  or  a  greater  opportunity  for  im- 
provement in  his  favorite  pursuits.  It  was  said  at  his  departure, 
that  he  expected  to  be  employed  by  the  English  government  in 
preparing  plates  to  prevent  the  counterfeiting  of  bills  of  the  Bank 
of  England. 

It  had  ever  been  maintained  by  philosophers  generally,  that 
water  was  incapable  of  compression.  Perkins  was  among  the 
first  to  doubt  the  truth  of  this  opinion,  and,  by  his  ingenious  ex- 
periment, has  proved  beyond  a  question  the  falsity  of  popular 
opinion.  On  this  principle  is  his  invention  of  the  bathometer, 
to  measure  the  depth  of  water :  and  his  pleometer,  to  mark  with 
precision  the  rate  at  which  a  vessel  moves  through  the  water,  was 
invented  about  the  same  time.  At  the  announcement  of  his  in- 
vention to  heat  water  under  an  enormous  pressure,  the  public  were 
led,  from  statements  neither  sanctioned  nor  promulgated  by  the 
inventor,  to  indulge  in  the  most  extravagant  speculations  on  the 
power  and  economy  to  be  derived  from  this  discovery.  The  dis- 
appointment of  these  absurd  expectations  was  magnified  into  a 
reproach  against  the  experimenter,  although,  in  fact,  Perkins  per- 
formed all  he  promised :  and  his  scheme  was  only  incomplete, 
from  a  practical  difficulty  in  getting  a  suitable  material  for  his 
generator,  sufficiently  powerful  to  withstand  the  enormous  heat 
and  pressure, — an  obstacle  neither  insuperable  nor  unforeseen. 

Among  his  early  inventions,  were  the  improvements  in  harden- 
ing and  softening  steel  at  pleasure.  This  has  been  highly  useful 
in  its  results,  and  has  become  very  well  known  in  connection  with 
roller-press  printing  from  hardened  steel  plates,  now  universally 
used  in  the  printing  of  calicoes. 

A  material  peculiarity  in  Mr.  Perkins1  invention,  and  one  which 


108  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

does  not  seem  to  have  been  approached  by  any  preceding  artist, 
was  the  contrivance  of  what  are  called  indenting  cylinders.  These 
are  rollers  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  made  of  steel, 
decarbonized  so  as  to  be  very  soft.  In  this  state  they  are  made 
to  roll  backward  and  forward,  under  a  powerful  pressure,  over  the 
surface  of  one  of  the  hardened  plates,  until  all  the  figures,  letters, 
or  indentations  are  communicated  with  exquisite  precision  in  sharp 
relief  upon  the  cylinder,  which  being  carefully  hardened  and  tem- 
pered, becomes,  by  this  means,  fitted  to  communicate  an  impres- 
sion to  other  plates,  by  an  operation  similar  to  that  by  which  it 
was  originally  figured.  It  will  be  obvious  that  one  advantage 
gained  by  this  method  must  be  the  entire  saving  of  the  labor  and 
expense  of  recutting,  in  every  case,  on  different  plates,  ornaments, 
borders,  emblematical  designs,  &c. ;  as  these  can  now  be  im- 
pressed, with  little  trouble,  on  any  number  of  plates,  or  in  any 
part  thereof,  by  the  application  of  the  cylinder. 

At  first  sight,  the  performance  of  such  an  operation  as  the  one 
now  alluded  to  may  appear  difficult,  if  not  impracticable.  Many 
persons,  on  its  first  announcement,  were  disposed  to  doubt  or  deny 
its  possibility  altogether.  With  a  proper  and  powerful  apparatus, 
however,  this  method  of  transferring  engravings  from  plates  to 
cylinders,  and  vice  versa,  is  every  day  performed  with  facility  and 
success  in  works  exhibiting  even  very  elaborate  engraving.  By 
this  means  the  most  delicate  designs,  which  would  occupy  an  en- 
graver many  months  to  effect  by  hand,  can  be  completed  in  a  few 
days.  Of  course  the  cylinders  are  produced  at  a  much  less  price, 
and  they  may  be  executed  in  a  very  superior  manner. 

Mr.  Perkins  has  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention  by  his  experi- 
ments in  steam  artillery,  and  in  this  has  far  distanced  all  his  pre- 
decessors in  this  mode  of  warfare.  Watt,  it  appears,  once  pro- 
jected something  of  the  kind,  but  this  man  of  peace  did  not  proceed 
to  much  extent  with  the  warlike  project.  Jonathan  Hornblower 
also  constructed  what  he  called  a  steam  rocket ;  and  the  French 
general  Chasseloup  proposed,  some  years  later,  (1805,)  a  similar 
plan  for  the  defence  of  besieged  places.  M.  Gerard,  a  French 
officer  of  engineers,  is  stated  to  have  carried  this  idea  into  practice 
in  1814,  for  the  purpose  of  defending  Paris  at  the  approach  of  the 
allies.  In  this  apparatus  the  boiler  was  moved  on  a  carriage,  and 
supplied  steam  for  propelling  balls  from  six  gun-barrels,  the 
breeches  of  which  were  opened  at  pleasure  ;  on  turning  a  handle, 
the  six  guns  received  each  a  ball  and  the  steam  at  the  same  time, 
by  a  mechanism  like  what  is  seen  in  magazine  air-guns.  The 
longest  shots  were  made  by  turning  the  handle  slowly,  and  one 
hundred  and  eighty  balls  were  thrown  in  a  minute.  A  wagon  at- 


JACOB  PERKINS.  193 

tended  the  machine,  to  supply  fuel  and  bullets.  The  capitulation 
of  Paris  prevented  this  novel  artillery  from  being  brought  into  ac- 
tion ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  apparatus  was  taken  to  pieces. 

The  experiments  of  Perkins  were  on  a  far  more  daring  and 
extensive  scale.  The  sounds  produced  by  his  steam-guns  are 
said  to  resemble  a  rapid  running  fire  of  musketry,  accompanied 
by  a  rustling  sound  or  roar  that  quite  deafened  the  unaccustomed 
ear.  In  his  experiments  before  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  a 
numerous  party  of  engineer  officers,  the  balls  at  first  were  dis- 
charged at  short  intervals,  in  imitation  of  artillery  firing  against 
an  iron  target,  at  the  distance  of  thirty-five  yards,  and  such  wag 
the  intensity  of  the  propelling  force,  that  they  were  completely 
shattered  to  atoms.  In  the  next  trial  the  balls  were  fired  at  a 
framing  of  wood,  and  they  actually  passed  through  eleven  planks, 
each  one  inch  thick,  of  the  hardest  deal,  placed  at  a  distance  from 
each  other.  Balls,  also,  which  were  fired  against  an  iron  plate, 
one  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  passed  through  it ;  yet  the 
pressure  of  steam  required  to  produce  this  was  estimated  not 
much  to  exceed  sixty-five  atmospheres,  or  nine  hundred  pounds 
on  each  square  inch. 

To  demonstrate  the  rapidity  with  which  musket  balls  might  be 
thrown,  he  screwed  on  to  a  gun-barrel  a  tube  filled  with  balls, 
which  falling  down  by  their  own  gravity  into  the  barrel,  were 
projected  one  by  one  with  such  extraordinary  velocity,  as  to  de- 
monstrate that,  by  means  of  a  succession  of  tubes  filled  with  balls, 
fixed  in  a  wheel,  a  model  of  which  was  exhibited,  nearly  one  thou- 
sand balls  per  minute  might  be  discharged.  The  next  experiments 
were  of  a  more  interesting  kind.  To  the  gun-barrel  was  attached 
a  moveable  joint,  a  lateral  direction  was  then  given  to  it,  and  the 
balls  perforated  a  lineal  series  of  holes  in  a  plank  nearly  twelve 
feet  long.  Thus,  had  the  musket  or  gun  been  opposed  to  a  regi- 
ment in  extended  line,  it  might  have  been  made  ta  shoot  down 
each  soldier  in  succession. 

A  similar  plank  was  then  placed  perpendicularly,  and  in  like 
manner  there  was.  a  string  of  shot  holes  throughout  its  whole 
length :  and  it  was  thus  demonstrated  that  steam-guns,  could  be 
made  to  shoot  round  a  corner  / 

Mr.  Perkins  thus  calculated  this  new  mode  of  warfare  : — Sup- 
pose two  hundred  and  fifty  balls  are  discharged  in  a  minute  by  a 
single-barrelled  gun,  or  fifteen  thousand  per  hour  ;  this,  for  sixteen 
hours,  would  require  about  fifteen  thousand  pounds  of  powder, 
which,  at  seventy  shillings  per  hundred  weight,  would  cost  five 
hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  (about  two  thousand  three  hundred 
dollars.)  But  the  same  number  of  balls  can  be  thrown  in  sue* 

14* 


AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

cession,  and  in  the  same  time,  for  the  price  of  five  bushels  of  coal 
per  hour,  or  about  ten  or  twelve  dollars  for  fifteen  hours. 

After  the  experiments  Perkins  made  at  Greenwich  before  Prince 
Polignac,  and  some  French  engineers  whom  the  Duke  d'Angou- 
leme  had  sent  to  make  a  report  to  him  concerning  them,  he 
received  instructions  to  form  a  piece  of  ordnance  to  throw  sixty 
balls,  of  four  pounds  each,  in  a  minute.  This  he  guarantied  should 
be  done  with  the  correctness  of  a  rifle  musket,  and  to  a  propor- 
tionate distance.  A  musket  was  also  attached  to  the  same  gene- 
rator for  throwing  a  stream  of  lead  from  the  bastion  of  a  fort,  and 
which  he  engaged  to  make  so  far  portable  as  to  be  capable  of 
being  moved  from  one  bastion  to  another. 

Both  the  French  and  English  engineers  before  whom  these  ex- 
periments were  made  condemned  the  steam-gun  as  being  of  no  real 
utility.  The  practical  difficulties  of  working  steam  under  such  an 
enormous  pressure  were  evident ;  it  being  impossible  to  make  it 
as  powerful  as  gunpowder.  Besides,  all  engines  of  war  should  be 
as  simple  as  possible,  for  in  the  heat  of  action  it  is  rarely  that 
men  are  found  to  act  with  the  self-possession  necessary  in  the 
management  of  even  the  simplest  machinery,  no  matter  how  well 
drilled  they  may  previously  have  been  in  its  management. 

It  is  not  intended  in  derogation  of  the  talents  and  ingenuity  of 
Mr.  Perkins,  when  we  say  his  inventions  have  not  all  been  as 
useful  in  practice  as  his  friends  might  have  wished.  The  merit, 
however,  awarded  to  him  is  sufficient  to  establish  his  reputation 
as  one  of  the  most  ingenious  and  philosophical  citizens  of  the 
union ;  and  his  exertions  throughout  have  been  of  that  laudable 
and  meritorious  kind,  that,  even  in  failure,  ought  to  bring  honor. 


THOMAS  BLANCHARD. 


THOMAS   BLANCHARD. 


Birth. — Early  fondness  for  mechanics. — Anecdote. — At  thirteen  years  of  age  in- 
vents a  machine  for  paring  apples. — Assists  his  brother  in  the  manufacturing 
of  tacks. — Description  of  the  process. — Invents  a  coimting  machine. — Learns 
the  use  of  blacksmiths'  and  carpenters'  tools. — Perseverance  in  perfecting  the 
tack  machine. — Final  success. — Sells  the  patent  right. — Makes  great  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  muskets. — Anecdote. — Invents  the  engine  for 
turning  irregular  forms. — Description. — Anecdote. — Is  employed  in  the  national 
armories  in  erecting  the  engines,  and  making  other  important  improvements. 
— Congress  grants  the  petition  for  a  renewal  of  the  patent  right  for  the  en- 
gine.— Interests  himself  in  the  subject  of  railroads. — Invents  and  makes  ex- 
periments with  a  steam-carriage. — Petitions  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts. — 
The  report  of  the  committee. — Applies  to  the  legislature  of  New  York. — 
Interview  with  Gov.  Clinton. — Abandons  the  project. — Invents  a  steamboat  on 
a  new  principle  to  ascend  Enfield  Falls. — Makes  an  excursion  up  the  Connec- 
ticut.— Builds  a  second  and  superior  boat. — Constructs  a  steamboat  on  the 
Alleghany. — Its  first  voyage. — The  Indian  chief  Cornplanter,  and  the  steam- 
boat.— Encroachments. — Complimentary  remarks  of  Judge  Story  on  the  ter- 
mination of  a  lawsuit. — Conclusion. 

MOST  of  the  following  materials  were  obtained  by  solicitation 
from  the  subject  of  the  memoir.  We  present  them  to  the  public 
with  pleasure,  as  containing  some  of  the  leading  incidents  in  the 
life  of  an  unassuming,  yet  talented  individual,  who,  by  industry 
and  perseverance  in  his  peculiar  department,  claims  an  honorable 
station  among  the  true  benefactors  of  man. 

Thomas  Blanchard  was  born  in  Sutton,  Worcester  county, 
Mass.,  on  the  24th  of  June,  1788.  Like  most  New  Englanders, 
his  ancestors  were  among  the  early  settlers  of  our  country. 
His  father,  Mr.  Samuel  Blanchard,  stood  high  as  an  agriculturist, 
a  situation  solely  due  to  the  qualities  of  industry  and  economy  for 
which  he  was  noted.  Thomas  was  the  fifth  of  six  sons  ;  his  fond* 
ness  for  mechanical  subjects  may  be  dated  back  almost  to  the 
dawn  of  life  ;  his  first  recollections  are  of  cutting  up  shingles  with 
a  knife  into  all  kinds  of  toys,  such  as  windmills,  water-wheels, 
&c.,  and  when  old  enough  to  attend  school,  he  would  be  seized  with 
an  irresistible  propensity  to  steal  away  from  study,  and  employ 
the  time  with  his  then  favorite  tools,  the  knife  and  gimlet.  His 
advantages  for  viewing  mechanical  operations  were  few,  his  resi- 
dence being  in  a  portion  of  the  town  where  there  was  not  a 
workshop  of  any  kind,  except  a  country  smith's,  and  even  that 
at  some  distance,  The  first  time  he  recollects  visiting  this  place 


198  AMERICAN    MECHANICS. 

was  with  his  father,  probably  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten.  Being 
obliged  to  wait  during  the  operation  of  shoeing  their  horse,  his 
attention  was  fully  occupied  in  watching  the  movements  of  the 
smith.  What  struck  him  with  the  greatest  wonder  and  astonish, 
ment,  was  the  process  of  heating  and  welding  two  nailrods,  and 
he  thought  he  would  give  all  he  possessed  to  perform  such  a 
miraculous  operation. 

On  their  road  home  young  Blanchard's  mind  was  full  of  what 
he  had  seen.  His  thoughts  were  now  raised  far  above  the  knife 
and  gimlet,  and  he  was  determined,  if  possible,  to  imitate  the 
wonder  he  had  just  witnessed.  Standing  near  the  house  was  an 
old  weaving  shop,  containing  in  the  lower  part  a  place  for  farming 
tools,  and  in  the  attic  a  parcel  of  scraps  of  old  iron,  from  which 
our  young  experimenter  obtained  a  full  supply.  The  next,  and 
most  troublesome  step,  was  the  procuring  of  fuel ;  to  effect  this 
he  determined  upon  watching  the  kitchen  fire,  and,  when  his 
mother's  back  was  turned,  to  wet  the  burning  coals,  take  them 
away,  and  secrete  them  in  a  snug  corner  of  the  cellar  ;  but  finding 
this  a  slow,  as  well  as  tedious  operation,  he  had  recourse,  on 
baking  days,  to  his  mothers  oven.  In  a  few  weeks  all  was  ready, 
and  his  parents  setting  out  on  a  visit  to  some  relations  in  a  neigh- 
boring town,  gave  the  long  wished-for  opportunity.  Previous  to 
their  departure  he  was  enjoined  to  perform  a  certain  task  :  this 
he  commenced,  and  for  a  while  made  rapid  progress,  but  being 
unable  to  withstand  the  temptation,  soon  abandoned  it  for  the  new 
and  more  agreeable  scheme.  Taking  the  bellows  from  the 
kitchen,  and  collecting  the  materials  from  a  pile  of  brick  and 
stone  in  the  yard,  he  managed  to  build  a  very  good  forge  in  the 
weaving  shop.  An  anvil  was  still  wanting,  and  for  a  moment  he 
was  at  loss  how  to  proceed,  but  happening  to  think  of  one  of  his 
fathers  wedges,  he  obtained  it,  and  driving  it  into  a  block,  left  the 
square  end  sufficiently  high  for  the  intended  purpose  j  and  finally, 
bringing  out  his  coals  from  the  cellar  corner,  he  was  ready  to 
blow  up  the  fire  early  the  next  morning.  On  commencing,  he 
succeeded  very  well  in  beating  the  iron  into  the  required  shape ; 
his  ambition  now  was  to  join  two  pieces  into  one,  but  being  igno- 
rant of  the  "  welding  heat,11  in  vain  exerted  his  utmost  skill  j  it 
then  occurred  to  him,  if  he  could  only  make  another  visit  to  the 
smith,  he  would  be  enabled  to  surmount  the  difficulty.  While 
devising  further  plans  his  parents  returned,  and  his  father  enter- 
ing and  viewing  his  son's  work,  at  first  feigned  to  look  displeased, 
but  could  not  refrain  from  relaxing  his  countenance  at  the  ludi- 
crous imitation,  and  after  inquiring  where  the  coals  came  from, 
ended  by  ordering  the  youthful  Vulcan  to  take  down  his  forge 


THOMAS   BLANCHARD.  199 

and  return  the  materials  to  their  appropriate  places  ;  thus  ended 
his  first  important  mechanical  experiment. 

At  the  age  of  thirteen  having  heard  of  a  machine  for  paring 
apples,  he  was  determined  to  make  one,  and  employed  all  his 
leisure  in  the  invention.  Although  he  had  received  but  a  mere 
hint  of  its  operation,  it  was  soon  ready  for  trial,  but  at  first  proved 
unsuccessful :  no  difficulty  was  experienced  in  fixing  the  apple  so 
as  to  revolve  on  turning  a  crank,  yet  on  applying  the  knife  to  the 
fruit  it  would  run  in  towards  its  centre,  instead  of  cutting  a  thin 
paring.  Not  in  the  least  discouraged,  he  set  his  "  young  wits11 
to  work  to  remedy  the  deficiency,  and  the  first  step  was  to  watch 
the  operation  of  paring  by  hand.  He  observed  that  the  thick- 
ness  of  the  shaving  was  gauged  by  the  thumb  of  the  hand  hold- 
ing  the  cutter.  This  led  him  to  see  the  necessity  of  fixing  a  gauge 
to  the  knife.  Here  he  learned  an  important  fact,  one  that  may 
be  termed  his  first  lesson  in  the  way  of  invention, — viz.  to  imitate 
nature,  as  in  the  use  of  the  hand,  where  machinery  is  substituted 
for  hand  operations.  The  success  of  this  invention  was  soon 
known  throughout  the  neighborhood,  and  young  Blanchard  thence- 
forth became  a  favorite  at  all  the  "paring  bees,"  where  he  would 
accomplish  more  with  his  machine  than  half  a  dozen  girls  by  hand. 

The  success  attending  this  undertaking  gave  him  new  ideas 
and  a  greater  thirst  for  invention.  Soon  after  he  went  to  reside 
with  an  elder  brother,  who  had  a  number  of  persons,  mostly  boys, 
to  assist  him  in  the  business  of  manufacturing  tacks.  The  opera- 
tion was  to  cut  them  into  points  from  a  thin  plate  of  iron,  after 
which  they  were  taken  up,  one  at  a  time,  with  the  thumb  and 
finger,  and  held  in  a  tool  griping  them  by  the  movement  of  a  lever. 
The  lever  was  put  in  motion  by  one  foot,  while  a  blow  was  simul- 
taneously given  with  a  hammer  held  in  the  right  hand,  making  a 
flat  head  of  the  large  end  of  the  point  which  projected  above  the 
head  of  the  tool.  This  was  the  only  method  then  known,  and  so 
very  slow  and  irksome,  that  young  Blanchard  would  often  grow 
tired  and  disgusted.  As  a  daily  task,  he  was  given  a  certain 
quantity  to  manufacture,  which  number  was  ascertained  by  weigh- 
ing and  counting  :  finding  this  too  much  trouble,  he  was  induced 
to  construct  a  counting  machine.  This  was  a  very  ingenious  con- 
trivance, consisting  of  a  ratchet  wheel  moving  one  tooth  every 
time  the  jaws  of  the  heading  tool  moved  in  the  process  of  mak. 
ing  one  tack,  to  which  a  bell  was  also  attached  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  give  a  signal  by  ringing  when  the  required  nurnber  was 
completed. 

His  brother,  on  witnessing  its  operation,  forbid  him  wasting  time 
on  such  idle  projects.  He  was  not,  however,  of  a  disposition  to 


200  AMERICAN    MECHANICS. 

be  frustrated  in  ideas,  if  he  could  not  execute  plans  ;  and  even  at 
this  early  day  began  to  conceive  of  the  design  of  a  machine  for 
cutting  and  heading  tacks.  Although  his  brother  would  endeavor 
to  discourage  him,  by  saying  that  it  was  too  small  and  intricate  a 
process  to  be  performed  by  machinery,  yet  he  was  determined 
that  whenever  he  became  sufficiently  skilled,  and  possessed  the 
means,  to  prosecute  the  undertaking. 

His  father  not  having  any  fondness  for  mechanics,  and  excelling 
in  his  own  calling,  was  resolved  to  bring  up  his  son  Thomas  in 
the  same  pursuit ;  but  at  last,  satisfied  of  its  utter  impossibility, 
allowed  him  to  follow  that  path  for  which  his  genius  had  peculiarly 
fitted  him  ;  not,  however,  without  expressing  a  truly  paternal  de- 
sire that  he  should  aim  at  the  acquisition  of  a  thorough,  practical 
knowledge  of  whatever  was  attempted.  The  first,  and  by  far 
most  important  step,  was  learning  the  use  of  blacksmiths1  tools  ; 
after  which  Blanchard  became  skilled  in  the  different  modes  of 
working  on  wood,  turning,  &c.,  which  in  his  subsequent  career 
has  given  him  a  decided  advantage  over  others  possessing  only  a 
theoretical  knowledge. 

So  ardent  was  he  in  the  pursuit  of  new  projects  in  the  arts,  that 
his  early  education  was  greatly  neglected,  yet  the  practical  know- 
ledge acquired  in  youth,  in  some  measure  supplied  the  want  of 
literary  acquirements  ;  affording,  perhaps,  in  the  opinion  of  some, 
an  additional  illustration  of  the  saying  of  a  late  philosopher,  "  that 
a  self-taught  man  is  more  likely  to  produce  useful  and  original 
ideas,  than  one  who  gathers  his  knowledge  from  books,11 — an 
axiom  so  far  true,  as  self-reliance  is  better  than  dependence,  while  a 
certain  medium  offers  superior  advantages. 

At  the  age  of  eighteen,  Blanchard  commenced  the  invention  of 
the  tack  machine,  but  was  compelled  to  lay  it  aside  for  a  time  for 
the  want  of  means.  Refunding  himself  from  his  other  occu- 
pations, he  recommenced  the  project,  until  exhausted  resources 
once  more  obliged  him  to  abandon  it.  This  course  he  pursued 
alternately,  for  a  period  of  six  years,  expending  all  he  could  raise 
upon  his  darling  project,  carrying  the  models  about  from  place  to 
place,  wherever  he  could  find  employment,  and  throwing  the  old 
ones  aside  as  fast  as  improvements  were  suggested.  Of  daunt- 
less perseverance,  the  advice  and  earnest  entreaties  of  friends  in 
dissuasion  from  this  apparently  hopeless  undertaking,  but  added 
fuel  to  the  flame.  Success  at  last  crowned  his  efforts,  and  so 
complete  was  the  operation,  that  by  placing  the  iron  into  the  tube 
or  hopper,  and  applying  the  moving  power,  five  hundred  tacks 
could  be  made  per  minute,  with  more  finished  heads  and  points 
than  were  ever  made  by  hand.  Such  was  its  perfection,  that  a 


THOMAS    BLANCHARD.  201 

"half. ounce  weight  would  balance  a  thousand.  Securing  the  patent, 
he  sold  the  right  for  five  thousand  dollars  to  a  company  who  went 
extensively  into  the  business ;  a  slender  compensation  consider- 
ing its  importance,  but  small  as  it  was,  it  relieved  him  of  em- 
barrassments, and  placed  him  some  thousands  ahead. 

Mr.  Blanchard  being  a  practical  operator  in  all  branches  of 
machinery,  and  possessing  also  economical  habits,  together  with 
an  unwearied  perseverance,  was  enabled  to  execute  his  plans  at  a 
comparatively  small  expense.  The  success  of  his  tack  machine 
inspired  him  with. new  confidence,  and  a  greater  desire  for  im- 
provement in  the  arts. 

About  this  time,  attempts  were  making  in  the  various  armories 
under  the  patronage  of  government,  to  turn  musket  barrels  with 
an  external  finish,  instead  of  pursuing  the  then  common  and  very 
imperfect  mode  of  reducing  them  to  a  uniform  thickness  by  grind- 
ing. In  accordance  with  the  advice  of  a  friend,  possessing  great 
confidence  in  his  skill,  Blanchard  was  induced  to  invent  a  machine 
for  turning  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  barrel.  There  was  then 
remaining  about  three  inches  at  the  breech,  requiring  to  be  cut  in 
a  different  figure,  with  two  flat  and  oval  sides,  and,  finally,  finished 
by  chipping,  filing,  and  grinding.  He  undertook,  with  perfect  suc- 
cess, the  construction  of  a  lathe  to  turn  the  whole  of  the  barrel,from 
end  to  end,  by  the  combination  of  one  single,  self-directing  operation. 
To  effect  this,  it  was  placed  in  the  lathe,  and  the  process  commenced 
at  the  muzzle, ^n  the  ordinary  way,  turning  the  cylindrical  portion 
first;  but  as  the  cutting  instrument  approached  the  breech,  the 
motion  was  very  ingeniously  changed  into  a  vibrating  one,  so  as 
to  cut  the  flats  and  ovals  perfectly  parallel  with  the  calibre  of  the 
barrel.  This  was  effected  by  a  cam-wheel  placed  in  the  arbor  of 
the  lathe,  and  operated  by  a  lever.  A  knowledge  of  this  impor- 
tant improvement  coming  to  the  superintendent  of  the  United 
States1  armory  at  Springfield,  a  contract  was  made  with  Blanchard 
to  erect  one  at  that  establishment.*  While  the  workmen  were 
gathered  around  to  witness  its  operation,  an  incident  occurred 
which  finally  led  to  the  truly  wonderful  invention  for  turning 
irregular  forms.  One  of  the  men,  addressing  himself  to  a  com- 
panion, says,  "  Well,  John,  he  has  spoiled  your  job !"  "  I  care 
not  for  that,"  was  the  reply,  "  as  long  as  I  can  get  a  better." 
One  of  the  musket-stockers,  with  a  confident  shake  of  the  head, 
then  boastingly  exclaimed,  "  that  he  (Blanchard)  could  not  spoil 
his,  for  he  could  not  turn  a  gun-stock!"  This  remark  struck 

*  This  armory  is  by  far  the  most  extensive  in  the  Union,  furnishing  employ- 
ment for  three  hundred  men,  who  annually  manufacture  fourteen  thousand 
muskets. 


202  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

Blanchard  very  forcibly,  and  in  answer  he  observed,  "  I  am  not 
so  sure  of  that,  but  will  think  of  it  a  while."  The  idea  of  turning 
by  machinery  such  a  long  irregular  form  as  the  stock  of  a  musket, 
seemed  absurd,  but  he  could  not  banish  the  subject  from  his  mind. 
After  remaining  a  few  days  longer  at  Springfield,  he  left  for  his 
residence  in  Worcester  county.  While  passing  in  a  one-horse 
vehicle,  in  a  state  of  deep  meditation,  through  the  old  town  of 
Brimfield,  the  whole  principle  of  turning  irregular  forms  from  a 
pattern  at  once  burst  upon  his  mind  :  the  idea  was  so  pleasing  and 
forcible,  that,  like  Archimedes  of  old,  he  exclaimed  aloud,  "  /  have 
got  il !  I  have  got  it/" — Two  countrymen,  overhearing  this,  sud- 
denly started  up  from  the  way-side,  with  countenances  expressive 
of  wonder ;  when  one  of  them,  addressing  his  companion,  said, 
"  I  guess  that  man's  crazy." 

In  a  short  time,  Blanchard  built  a  model  of  this  machine,  and 
so  exact  were  its  operations  that  it  would  perfectly  turn  a  minia- 
ture stock. 

This  machine  is  represented  in  the  engraving  in  its  most  simple 
form,  for  turning  shoe-lasts ;  and  is  so  constructed  that,  from  one  as 
a  pattern,  an  exact  facsimile  can  be  formed  from  a  rough  block  of 
wood.  Both  the  pattern  and  block  are  fixed  on  the  same  axis,  and 
are  made  to  revolve  around  their  common  centre,  in  a  swinging 
lathe,  by  a  pulley  and  bolt  on  one  end  of  the  axis,  as  shown  in  the 
engraving.  On  a  sliding  carriage  is  attached  three  posts,  through 
which  are  fixed  pivots,  to  which  are  suspended  the  a*les  of  a  cutting 
and  a  friction  wheel.  The  cutting  wheel,  which  is  about  one  foot 
in  diameter,  turns  on  a  horizontal  axle,  and  to  its  periphery  is  fixed 
a  number  of  crooked  cutters  to  act  like  a  gouge  when  the  wheel  is 
put  in  motion.  This  cutting  wheel  is  placed  opposite  the  rough  block. 
The  friction  wheel,  which  is  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  cutting 
wheel,  is  placed  opposite  the  pattern,  so  as  to  press  against  it  when 
in  motion.  These  two  wheels  are  in  a  line  with  each  other,  and 
are  attached  to  the  same  carriage.  On  the  axle  of  the  cutting 
wheel  is  fixed  a  pulley,  around  which  passes  a  band  which  puts 
the  cutting  wheel  in  motion  by  a  large  drum  revolving  under  it. 
A  crank,  or  first  mover,  communicates  motion  to  the  drum,  which 
in  its  turn  transfers  a  rapid  motion  to  the  cutting  wheel ;  while  a 
band  which  passes  from  a  small  pulley  on  the  drum-shaft,  puts  in 
operation  a  feeding  screw-pulley,  which  moves  the  sliding  car- 
riage horizontally  from  left  to  right.  Another  pulley  on  the  drum- 
shaft  gives  a  slow  rotary  motion  both  to  the  pattern  and  the  rough 
block,  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  cutting  wheel.  The 
friction  wheel  is  turned  by  the  pattern  resting  against  it. 

During  the  revolution,  the  pattern,  being  irregular  in  its  surface, 


BLANCHARD  S    LATHE. 


THOMAS     BLANCHARD.  205 

causes  the  axis  to  approach  and  recede  from  the  wheel.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen,  as  it  presents  its  whole  surface  to  the  friction  wheel^ 
so  in  like  manner  the  block  presents  its  surface  to  the  cutting  wheel, 
which  being  in  rapid  motion  cuts  away  all  that  part  of  the  block 
which  is  farther  from  the  common  centre  than  the  surface  of  the 
pattern,  and  thus  forms,  from  a  rough  block,  an  exact  resemblance 
of  the  model. 

To  form  a  facsimile  in  reverse,  as  a  left  foot  shoe-last,  from 
a  right  foot  shoe-last,  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  pattern  should 
revolve  in  an  opposite  direction  from  the  block.  A  whole  sett  of 
lasts,  both  right  and  left,  can  be  formed  by  one  pattern,  either 
larger  or  smaller  than  the  model.  This  is  done  by  changing  the 
motion  and  speed  of  different  parts  of  the  machine.  To  form  an 
object  longer  than  the  pattern,  the  cutting  wheel  must  travel  in  its 
right-angle  movement  faster  than  the  friction  wheel,  or  vice  versa. 
To  form  it  larger  in  diameter  than  the  pattern,  the  axis  of  the 
cutting  wheel  must  be  kept  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  axis  of 
the  Nock  than  the  axis  of  the  pattern  is  from  the  axis  of  the  fric- 
tion wheel.  Thus  it  is  plain  that  an  article  can  be  formed  by  this 
operation  larger  or  smaller  than  the  model,  and  still  be  of  the 
same  proportions. 

This  machine  can  be  applied  to  turning  many  different  articles 
with  great  facility  and  perfection,  such  as  shoe-lasts,  gun-stocks, 
spokes  of  wheels,  hat-blocks,  tackle-blocks,  wig-blocks,  and  any 
other  objects,  no  matter  how  irregular  their  forms,  provided  their 
surfaces  can  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  periphery  of  the  fric- 
tion wheel. 

While  at  Washington,  securing  the  patent,  Blanchard  exhibited 
the  machine  at  the  war  office,  where  most  of  the  heads  of  the 
different  departments  had  assembled.  Among  the  rest  was  Com- 
modore R ,  then  one  of  the  navy  commissioners,  who,  after 

witnessing  its  operation  and  listening  to  the  remarks  made,  as  to 
the  various  articles  that  it  could  form,  jocosely  says  to  the  inventor, 
"Can  you  turn  a  seventy-four  ?"  "  Yes  !"  was  the  reply,  "  if  you 
will  furnish  a  block" 

The  secretary  of  war  was  so  well  satisfied  with  it,  that  an 
agreement  was  entered  into  with  the  inventor  to  build  one  imme- 
diately for  the  national  armory  at  Harper's  Ferry.  He  subse- 
quently put  one  in  operation  at  the  Springfield  establishment. 
This  opened  the  way  to  his  other  important  improvements  in  the 
stocking  of  arms,  since  universally  adopted,  consisting  in  the  cut- 
ting in  the  cavity  for  the  lock,  barrel,  butt-plates,  and  other  parts 
of  the  mounting,  comprising,  together  with  the  turning  the  stock 
and  barrel,  no  less  than  thirteen  different  machines.  Mr.  Blan- 

15 


206  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

chard  was  thus  occupied  in  the  employment  of  government  for  a 
period  of  five  years,  during  which  time  he  had  given  but  little 
attention  to  the  bringing  of  the  turning  machine  into  use  for  those 
other  purposes  for  which  it  was  as  well  adapted.  An  opportunity 
was  therefore  given  to  violators,  of  which  they  duly  took  advan. 
tage ;  and  more  than  fifty  machines  were  put  in  operation,  during 
the  first  term  of  the  patent,  in  various  parts  of  the  Union,  for 
turning  shoe-lasts,  handles,  spokes,  and  many  other  articles,  from 
which  he  derived  no  benefit ;  and  all  that  was  received  was  the 
government  price  of  nine  cents  on  each  musket  made  at  their  two 
armories,  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  Springfield.  On  the  expiration 
of  the  first  term  of  the  patent  in  1833,  he  petitioned  congress  for 
a  renewal,  which  was  granted  on  the  grounds  that  this  was  an 
original  machine,  standing  among  the  first  American  inventions, 
while  the  inventor  had  not  been  compensated  according  to  its  utility. 
In  1825,  the  public  attention  was  attracted  to  the  subject  of  rail- 
roads and  locomotive  power.  Blanchard  having  completed  his 
engagements  at  the  armories,  built  a  carriage  at  Springfield,  to 
travel  by  steam  on  common  roads.  This,  it  is  believed,  was  the 
first  locomotive  put  in  operation  in  this  country,  unless,  indeed,  the 
rude  contrivance  of  Evans  may  be  dignified  with  such  an  appella- 
tion. It  was  perfectly  manageable,  could  turn  corners,  and  go 
backwards  and  forwards  with  all  the  facility  of  a  well-trained  horse, 
and  on  ascending  a  hill  the  power  could  be  increased.  Blanchard 
was  so  well  satisfied  with  it,  that  he  secured  a  patent.  He  also 
built  models  of  railroad  turn-outs,  and  other  improvements  now  in 
general  use.  Independent  of  this,  he  went  so  far  as  to  exert  him- 
self to  raise  a  company  to  build  railroads,  and  with  this  view  sub- 
mitted his  plans  and  improvements  to  a  committee  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature,  who  reported  as  follows  : — 

"  Boston,  January  23,  1826. 

"  The  undersigned,  having  seen  the  model  of  a  railway  and 
steam-carriage  invented  by  Mr.  Thomas  Blanchard,  of  Springfield, 
in  this  commonwealth,  are  of  opinion,  from  their  own  examina- 
tions, and  from  those  of  scientific  men  in  this  vicinity,  that  they 
are  valuable  improvements,  and  peculiarly  adapted  for  use  in  this 
country :  and,$  as  such,  are  recommended  to  all  the  friends  of  in- 
ternal improvements. 

"  JOHN  MILLS,  ~] 

"  JAMES  SAVAGE,  Joint  Committee 

"  ROBERT  RANTOITL,         >  on 

"  LEVI  FARWELL,  Roads  and  Canals." 

"  WILLIAM  B.  CALHOUN,J 


THOMAS  BLANCHARD.  207 

Notwithstanding  this  satisfactory  report,  capitalists  viewed  it  as 
a  visionary  project.  Blanchard  then  applied  to  the  legislature  of 
New  York,  and,  explaining  his  plans  to  Governor  Clinton,  pro. 
posed  to  try  the  experiment  of  building  a  railroad  from  Albany  to 
Schenectady ;  but  he  was  of  opinion  that  it  was  too  soon  after  the 
completion  of  the  Erie  canal.  Finding  himself  before  the  times, 
he  abandoned  the  subject. 

In  1826,  it  was  determined  by  some  gentlemen  residing  at 
Hartford  to  improve  the  navigation  at  the  rapids  called  Enfield 
Falls,  on  the  Connecticut,  between  that  city  and  Springfield. 
These  falls  are  in  a  rocky,  crooked  channel  of  about  two  miles 
in  length,  and  are  composed  of  a  number  of  short,  shoal  rapids, 
amounting  in  the  whole  to  about  thirty  feet  descent.  The  method 
at  that  time  employed  was  to  navigate  them  in  flat-boats,  and  even 
then  it  was  impossible  to  ascend  them  without  a  favorable  wind 
and  the  assistance  of  polesmen.  Accordingly,  a  company  was 
formed  and  the  funds  raised  to  build  a  steamboat  for  this  purpose. 
Previous  to  commencing,  an  agent  was  sent  to  examine  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  boats  in  use  on  the  western  waters.  On  his  return, 
one  was  built  in  New  York,  on  the  most  approved  plan,  with  the 
wheel  under  the  stern,  but,  on  trial,  it  proved  unsuccessful.  The 
project  was  then  given  up  as  useless,  and  a  canal  dug  around  the 
falls,  at  an  expense  of  two  hundred  thousand  dollars,  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  a  small  steamer.  In  anticipation 
of  its  completion,  a  company  in  Springfield  employed  Mr.  Blan- 
chard as  an  agent  to  build  a  steamboat.  While  it  was  construct- 
ing, a  freshet  damaged  the  canal  so  as  to  cause  over  a  year's  delay 
in  its  completion.  This  event  caused  Blanchard  to  make  the  at- 
tempt to  navigate  the  falls  with  their  boat,  but  it  proved  as  fruitless 
as  the  experiment  of  the  canal  company.  This  led  him  to  study 
the  subject  more  fully, — to  make  experiments  as  to  the  best  form 
for  a  boat  and  wheels, — to  examine  the  rapids,  ascertain  the  speed 
of  the  water,  and  calculate  the  power  required  to  ascend  them. 
While  thus  engaged,  he  made  an  important  discovery,  in  which 
consisted  the  true  secret  of  his  success.  This  was  in  placing  the 
wheel  at  that  point  astern  where  the  greatest  eddy  is  formed  by 
the  filling  in  of  the  water  after  the  passage  of  the  boat ; — an  ar- 
rangement by  which  the  paddles  give  a  much  more  powerful  effect 
than  when  placed  on  the  sides  or  immediately  astern,  as  on  the 
western  rivers  :  and  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  vacuum  created 
by  the  passage  of  the  boat  causes  the  current  to  set  in  after  it  with 
such  velocity  as  to  offer  a  very  powerful  resistance  to  the  paddles 
as  they  strike  against  the  water. 

Finding  no  one  willing  to  assist  him,  he  was  determined  to 


208  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

build,  at  his  own  expense,  a  boat  on  the  foregoing  plan.  While 
constructing,  it  was  regarded  by  the  public  as  a  visionary  scheme 
and  a  waste  of  money.  It  was  made  of  the  best  materials,  of  light 
draught,  and  wrought  instead  of  cast  iron  used  in  the  formation  of 
the  engine.  By  little  practice,  she  ascended  the  falls  with  perfect 
ease,  and  made  her  daily  trips  between  Springfield  and  Hartford 
as  a  passage-boat.  This  was  the  commencement  of  a  new  era  in 
the  prosperity  of  Springfield,  for  Hartford  was  no  longer  the  head 
of  steam  navigation. 

In  the  autumn  of  1828,  Blanchard  made  an  excursion  with  a 
party  in  his  boat  up  the  Connecticut  above  Springfield,  passing 
through  its  fertile  and  romantic  valley  for  a  distance  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  had  never  seen  a 
steamboat,  and  consequently  flocked  to  the  river  by  thousands  to 
witness  the  wonderful  power  of  steam.  Having  heard  of  the  burst- 
ing of  boilers,  many  were  at  first  afraid  to  approach ;  but  curiosity 
conquering  their  fears,  they  became  anxious  to  see  and  take  a 
short  trip.  Its  arrival  was  welcomed  by  the  ringing  of  bells  and 
the  firing  of  cannon.  At  one  village,  so  great  was  the  enthusiasm 
that  a  line  was  formed  on  the  river  bank,  composed  of  all  sexes, 
who,  as  she  passed,  made  the  welkin  ring  with  their  acclamations. 

The  success  of  this  boat,  which  was  named  the  Vermont,  in- 
duced Blanchard  to  build  another  and  far  superior  one,  (the  Mas- 
sachusetts,) of  a  larger  size,  and  drawing  eighteen  inches  of  water. 
The  wheel  and  weighty  portions  of  the  machinery  were  supported 
by  two  arches  of  peculiar  construction  running  lengthwise  of  the 
vessel,  combining  great  strength  with  little  weight.  She  was  thus 
enabled  to  carry  two  steam  engines,  one  on  each  side,  driving  the 
paddle  wheel,  with  a  crank  on  each  end  of  the  wheel  shaft,  set  at 
right  angles  with  each  other.  By  this  arrangement  there  was  not 
any  dead  point,  or  slacking  of  the  wheel,  while  making  a  revolu- 
tion,— a  very  important  point  in  ascending  rapids.  The  facility 
of  this  mode  of  conveyance  caused  the  travel  and  transportation  to 
more  than  double  between  the  two  places. 

Finding  that  small  rapid  rivers  could  be  navigated  by  this  mode 
of  conveyance,  Mr.  Blanchard  soon  had  many  applications  from 
different  parts  of  the  union,  and  in  1830  was  employed  to  build  a 
boat  on  the  Alleghany,  to  ply  between  Pittsburg  and  Olean  Point, 
a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles  ;  the  fall  amounting  in  the  whole 
to  six  hundred  feet,  and  the  river  in  many  places  very  rapid.  This 
boat  was  named  the  Alleghany,  and  set  out  on  her  first  trip  in  the 
month  of  May,  with  thirty  passengers  and  twenty-five  tons  of 
freight,  passing  through  many  pleasant  villages  where  a  steamboat 
had  never  been.  On  reaching  the  village  of  the  celebrated  Indian 


THOMAS  BLANCHARD.  209 

chief  Cornplanter,  an  invitation  was  given  him  to  take  an  excur- 
sion up  the  river  ;  he  at  first  hesitated,  but  on  being  assured  that 
there  was  no  danger,  went  on  board  with  his  family.  He  wit- 
nessed  the  various  parts  of  the  machinery,  the  engine,  paddle, 
wheels,  &c.,  with  astonishment,  exclaiming,  in  broken  English, 
"  Great ! — great  /-—great  power  /"  The  Alleghany  drawing  only 
eighteen  inches  of  water,  was  enabled  to  ascend  many  of  the  small 
streams  that  empty  into  the  Ohio,  and  so  established  the  practica- 
bility of  navigating  small  and  rapid  rivers,  that  this  kind  of  boat 
has  since  gone  into  universal  use. 

Like  all  other  inventors,  Blanchard  has  experienced  his  sharo 
of  wrong  from  the  selfishness  of  his  fellow  men.  He  has  secured 
no  less  than  twenty-four  patents  for  as  many  different  inventions. 
But  a  small  portion  have  been  of  sufficient  benefit  to  pay  for  the 
expense  of  getting  them  up.  Many  of  them  have  been  used  with- 
out consent,  or  even  so  far  as  giving  him  the  credit  of  their  inven- 
tion. While  making  his  first  model  for  turning  irregular  forms, 
a  neighbor  attempted  to  defraud  him  of  it,  by  obtaining  others  to 
privately  watch  his  movements,  who  would  copy  as  fast  as  he  pro- 
gressed. On  Blanchard1s  going  to  Washington  to  secure  the  right, 
to  his  great  astonishment  he  found  a  caveat  had  been  lodged  for 
the  same  invention  only  the  day  previous.  Luckily  he  had  taken 
the  precaution,  at  the  time  his  model  was  first  put  into  operation, 
to  call  two  witnesses  to  view  it,  and  note  the  date  ;  so  he  was  en- 
abled on  trial  to  sustain  his  right.  Scarcely,  however,  was  this 
difficulty  surmounted  before  another  attempt  was  made  to  deprive 
him  of  it,  A  company  was  about  forming  in  Boston,  to  put  it  into 
operation  for  turning  ships1  tackle-blocks,  for  which  right  the  in- 
ventor was  to  receive  several  thousand  dollars.  Two  individuals, 
discovering,  on  examination,  (as  they  thought,)  that  the  claim  was 
too  broad,  informed  Blanchara  of  it,  at  the  same  time  threatening 
that,  unless  he  would  give  them  one  half  of  what  he  was  about  to 
receive,  they  would  make  it  public :  he  rejected  these  proposals 
with  scorn  and  indignation.  Thereupon  an  article  appeared  in 
the  prints,  cautioning  the  public,  and  stating  that  the  inventor  had 
claimed  more  than  he  had  invented.  This  so  alarmed  those  in- 
terested, that  a  stop  was  put  to  the  formation  of  the  company ;  he 
thereupon  surrendered  up  the  patent,  and  took  out  another. 

After  he  obtained  a  renewal  of  his  patent  by  act  of  congress 
in  1834,  he  was  determined  to  prosecute,  in  order  to.  realize 
something  from  his  labors.  On  bringing  a  suit  before  Judge 
Story,  of  Boston,  he  was  nonsuited  through  two  defects  in  the 
patent :  one  of  which  was  in  the  date  of  the  patent  set  forth 
jn  the  act,  and  the  other  in  terming  the  invention  a  machine, 

15* 


210  AMERICAN    MECHANICS. 

instead  of  an  engine.  On  application  to  congress,  although  stren- 
uously opposed  by  the  defendants  in  the  former  case,  the  mis- 
take was  rectified.  Subsequently  another  suit  was  commenced 
against  the  same  violators.  The  defence  set  up  was, — first,  that 
the  plaintiff  did  not  describe  his  machine  so  clearly  in  the  specifica- 
tion as  to  enable  a  skilful  artist  to  build  it ;  secondly,  that  the  ma- 
chine was  not  the  invention  of  the  plaintiff;  and  thirdly,  that  the 
claim  was  for  the  function,  and  not  for  the  machine  itself.  But 
not  any  proof  being  brought  to  establish  this  defence,  the  court 
overruled  all  objections,  and  gave  judgment  for  the  plaintiff.  His 
honor  Judge  Story,  on  making  his  remarks,  paid  the  following 
high  compliment  to  Mr.  Blanchard,  viz. :  "  That  after  much 
trouble,  care,  and  anxiety,  he  will  be  enabled  to  enjoy  the  fruits, 
unmolested,  of  his  inventive  genius,  of  which  he  had  a  high  opin- 
ion ;  and  it  afforded  him  much  pleasure  in  thus  being  able  publicly 
to  express  it." 

Mr.  Blanchard,  at  the  present  time,  is  residing  in  New  York 
city,  where  he  is  engaged  in  an  invention  promising  to  be  of  supe- 
rior utility.  We  trust  that  success  will  attend  all  his  future  efforts : 
and  may  he  continue  to  merit  the  increased  gratitude  of  his  fellow-, 
citizens  by  the  productions  of  his  inventive  talents.. 


HENRY  ECKFORD. 


Birth. — Is  placed  with  an  eminent  naval  constructor  at  Quebec. — Commences 
ship-building  in  New  York. — Establishes  the  reputation  of  the  naval  archi- 
tecture of  that  city. — Improvements. — Indebtedness  of  our  country  to  his  exer- 
tions during  the  late  war. — Verplanck's  tribute  to  his  memory. — Builds  the 
steam-ship  "  Robert  Fulton." — Is  appointed  naval  constructor  at  Brooklyn.— 
Builds  the  Ohio. — Resigns. — Is  engaged  in  constructing  vessels  of  war  for  the 
various  European  and  some  of  the  South  American  governments. — Plan  for  a 
new  organization  of  the  navy. — Unfortunate  connection  with  a  stock  company. 
— Honorable  acquittal. — Is  appointed  chief  naval  constructor  of  the  Turkish 
empire.— Death. — Character. 

WE  are  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  a  friend  for  the  following 
memoir  of  one,  whose  talents  and  industry  evinced  in  improving 
the  popular  arm  of  our  national  defence,  should  render  our  coun- 
try proud  of  ranking  him  among  her  adopted  children. 

Henry  Eckford  was  born  at  Irvine,  (Scotland,)  March  12, 1775. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  sent  out  to  Canada,  and  placed  under 
the  care  of  his  maternal  uncle,  Mr.  John  Black,  an  eminent  naval 
constructor  at  Quebec.  Here  he  remained  for  three  or  four  years, 
and  in  1796,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  commenced  his  labors  in 
New  York.  His  untiring  industry  and  attention  to  business  soon 
procured  for  him  numerous  friends ;  and  the  superior  style  in 
which  his  ships  were  built  excited  general  attention.  At  that  time 
the  vessels  constructed  at  Philadelphia  stood  highest  in  the  public 
esteem ;  but  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say,  that  those  built  by 
Mr.  Eckford  soon  occupied  the  first  rank,  and  gradually  New  York 
built  ships  bore  away  the  palm  from  all  competitors.  Equally  con- 
versant with  the  theoretical  as  well  as  with  the  practical  part  of 
his  profession,  he  never  frittered  away  his  own  time  or  the  money 
of  his  employers  in  daring  experiments,  which  so  often  extort  ap- 
plause from  the  uninformed  multitude.  He  preferred  feeling  his 
way  cautiously,  step  by  step.  Upon  the  return  of  one  of  his  ves- 
sels from  a  voyage,  by  a  series  of  questions  he  obtained  from  her 
commander  an  accurate  estimate  of  her  properties  under  all  the 
casualties  of  navigation.  This,  connected  with  her  form,  enabled 
him  to  execute  his  judgment  upon  the  next  vessel  to  be  built.  In 
this  way  he  proceeded,  successively  improving  the  shape  of  each, 
until  those  constructed  by  him;  or  after  his  models,  firmly  estab- 


212  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

lished  the  character  of  New  York  built  ships  over  those  of  any 
other  port  in  the  union. 

It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  na- 
ture of  this  work,  to  point  out  the  various  improvements  in  the 
shape  and  rig  of  all  classes  of  vessels  suggested  by  the  fertile 
mind  of  Mr.  Eckford  ;  and  perhaps  their  technical  details  would  be 
unintelligible  to  ordinary  readers.  It  is  sufficient  to  observe,  that 
after  his  models  our  vessels  gradually  dispensed  with  their  large 
and  low  stern  frames,  the  details  of  their  rigging  underwent  ex- 
tensive changes,  and  in  the  important  particulars  of  stability, 
speed,  and  capacity,  they  soon  far  surpassed  their  rivals. 

Mr.  Eckford  had  married  and  become  identified  with  the  inter, 
ests  of  his  adopted  country  when  the  war  broke  out  between 
America  and  England.  He  entered  into  contracts  with  the  gov- 
ernment to  construct  vessels  on  the  lakes,  and  the  world  witnessed 
With  astonishment  a  fleet  of  brigs,  sloops  of  war,  frigates,  and  ships 
of  the  line,  constructed  within  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 
At  the  present  day,  we  can  scarcely  appreciate  the  difficulties  and 
discouragements  under  which  operations  on  so  extended  a  scale 
were  obliged  to  be  conducted.  The  country  was  comparatively 
wild  and  uninhabited,  the  winters  long  and  severe,  provisions  and 
men,  with  the  iron-work,  tools,  rigging,  and  sails,  were  to  be 
transported  from  the  sea-coast,  the  timber  was  still  waving  in  the 
forests,  and,  to  crown  the  whole,  the  funds  provided  by  the  govern, 
ment  were  in  such  bad  repute,  that,  to  obtain  current  funds  there- 
from,  Mr.  Eckford  was  obliged  to  give  his  personal  guarantee. 

Under  all  these  embarrassments,  he  commenced  his  operations 
with  his  accustomed  activity  and  judgment,  organized  his  plans, 
and  offered  every  inducement  to  the  interests,  the  pride,  and  the 
patriotism  of  those  in  his.  employ  to  labor  to  the  extent  of  their 
ability.  Encouraged  by  his  presence  and  example,  they  entered 
upon  their  labors  with  enthusiasm,  and  neither  night  nor  day  saw 
a  respite  to  their  toils.  The  consequences  were  quickly  apparent.. 
A  respectable  fleet  was  soon  afloat,  and  our  frontier  preserved 
from  the  invasion  of  a  foe  as  active  and  persevering  as  ourselves. 
In  allusion  to  these  efforts,  one  of  our  intelligent  citizens,  Mr.  Ver^ 
planck,  in  a  discourse  delivered  before  the  Mechanics1  Institute, 
has  happily  observed,  "  I  cannot  forbear  from  paying  a  passing 
tribute  to  the  memory  of  a  townsman  and  a  friend.  It  is  but  a 
few  days  since  that  the  wealth,  talent,  and  public  station  of  this 
city  were  assembled  to  pay  honor  to  the  brave  and  excellent  Com- 
modore Chauncey.  Few  men  could  better  deserve  such  honors, 
either  by  public  service  or  private  worth ;  but  all  of  us  who  recok 
lect  the  events  of  the  struggle  for  naval  superiority  on  the  lakes 


HENRY  ECKFORD.  213 

during  the  late  war  with  Great  Britain,  could  not  help  calling  to 
mind  that  the  courage,  the  seamanship,  and  ability  of  Chauncey 
would  have  been  exerted  in  vain,  had  they  not  been  seconded  by 
the  skill,  the  enterprise,  the  science,  the  powers  of  combination, 
and  the  inexhaustible  resources  of  the  ship-builder,  Henry  Eck- 
ford." 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  his  accounts,  involving  an  amount 
of  several  millions  of  dollars,  were  promptly  and  honorably  settled 
with  the  government. 

Shortly  after  this,  he  constructed  a  steam-ship,  the  "  Robert 
Fulton,1'  of  a  thousand  tons,  to  navigate  between  New  York  and 
New  Orleans.  Unlike  the  light  and  fairy-like  models  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  which  seem  only  fit  for  smooth  water  and  summer  seas, 
she  was  a  stout  and  burdensome  vessel,  fitted  to  contend  with  the 
storms  of  the  Atlantic,  and  her  performance,  even  with  the  dis- 
advantage of  an  engine  of  inadequate  power,  far  exceeded  every 
expectation.  The  sudden  death  of  her  owner,  in  connection  with 
other  circumstances,  caused  her  to  be  sold ;  and  it  is  no  slight 
commendation  of  her  model,  that  when  she  was  afterwards  rigged 
into  a  sailing  vessel,  she  became  the  fastest  and  most  efficient 
sloop-of-war  (mounting  twenty-four  guns)  in  the  Brazilian  navy. 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  model  then  proposed  by  Mr.  Eckford 
for  sea  steamers  has  not  been  followed.  The  vain  attempt  to  ob- 
tain speed,  without  a  corresponding  change  in  the  shape  of  the 
model,  that  would  enable  them  to  contend  successfully  with  heavy 
seas,  has  been  attended  with  disgraceful  failures,  involving  an  im- 
mense loss  of  lives. 

A  strong  feeling  of  professional  pride  induced  Mr.  Eckford  to 
accept  an  invitation  from  the  Secretary  of  the  navy  to  become 
naval  constructor  at  Brooklyn.  He  was  desirous  of  building  a 
line-of-battle  ship  for  the  ocean  that  should  serve  as  a  model  for 
future  vessels  of  that  class,  and  in  the  Ohio,  we  believe,  it  is  gene- 
rally conceded  such  a  model  has  been  obtained.  Her  ports,  it  is 
true,  have  been  altered  to  suit  the  whim  of  some  ignorant  officer, 
who  has  thus  weakened  her  frame  in  order  to  imitate  an  English 
model,  and  her  spars  have  been  curtailed  of  their  due  proportions, 
to  gratify  a  commissioner's  fancy ;  but,  under  all  these  disadvan- 
tages, she  is  to  remain  a  model  for  future  constructors.  Unfor- 
tunately, our  marine  was  then  encumbered,  as  it  is  now,  with  a 
board  of  commissioners  composed  of  old  navy  officers,  who  fancied 
that  because  they  commanded  ships  they  could  build  them, — an 
idea  as  preposterous  as  it  would  have  been  to  have  intrusted  the 
naval  constructors  with  their  command.  Under  this  sage  adminis- 
tration of  the  affairs  of  the  navy,  six  ships  of  the  line,  costing  four 


214  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

millions  of  dollars,  were  constructed ;  the  constructors  received 
their  orders  from  the  sages  at  Washington,  and  each  vessel,  as 
was  to  have  been  expected,  became  worse  than  the  preceding. 
Two  of  them  are  permitted  to  rot  in  the  mud,  a  third  has  been 
cut  down  to  a  frigate  possessing  no  very  creditable  properties,  and 
the  others,  if  not  humanely  suffered  to  rot,  will  probably  follow 
their  example. 

The  same  signal  disgrace  has  fallen  upon  our  sloops  of  war. 
Under  a  mistaken  idea  of  strength  and  stability,  their  frames  are 
solid,  and  in  many  instances  their  leeway  and  headway  are  nearly 
balanced.  Some  of  them,  we  are  officially  informed,  possess 
every  desirable  property,  except  that  they  are  rather  difficult  to 
steer!  Those  in  the  least  acquainted  with  the  subject  need  hardly 
be  informed  that  this  exception,  trifling  as  it  seems,  is  conclusive 
against  the  model. 

At  the  head  of  this  board  was  Commodore  John  Rodgers,  and 
his  instructions  and  his  orders  were  to  be  the  basis  of  Mr.  Eck- 
ford^ operations.  These  orders,  copied,  for  the  most  part,  out 
of  some  exploded  work  on  naval  architecture,  were  wisely  disre- 
garded, although  their  receipt  was  duly  acknowledged  ;  and  he  has 
been  heard  to  observe,  that  when  the  vessel  was  completed,  he 
would  have  challenged  the  whole  board  to  have  examined  and 
pointed  out  in  what  particulars  their  orders  had  not  been  implicitly 
obeyed.  Under  the  orders  of  the  commissioners,  he  had  prepared 
a  model  which,  after  due  examination,  was  graciously  approved  of. 
When  Mr.  Eckford  proceeded  to  lay  down  the  vessel,  he  thought 
fit  to  introduce  many  important  changes,  and  the  only  genuine 
draught  of  the  Ohio  is  now  owned  by  Mr.  Isaac  Webb,  one  of  the 
most  intelligent  of  his  pupils.  The  consequence,  however,  of  these 
collisions  between  presuming  ignorance  and  modest  worth  were 
soon  obvious.  Mr.  Eckford  resigned  his  commission  on  the  day 
the  Ohio  was  launched ;  and  shortly  after  received  an  intimation, 
that  he  would  never  see  her  put  in  commission  as  long  as  the  mem- 
bers  of  that  board  held  their  seats.  This  promise,  as  our  readers 
are  aware,  was  kept  for  eighteen  years. 

Shortly  after  this  he  engaged  extensively  in  his  profession ;  and 
so  great  and  extended  became  his  reputation,  that  he  was  called 
upon  to  construct  vessels  of  war  for  various  European  powers,  and 
for  some  of  the  republics  of  South  America.  Among  others,  he 
built  and  despatched  to  Columbia  and  Brazil  four  64  gun-ships,  of 
2000  tons  each,  in  the  incredibly  short  space  of  eighteen  months. 
In  these  cases  his  accounts  were  promptly  adjusted,  and  he  re- 
ceived from  all  parties  highly  honorable  testimonials  of  his  integ- 
rity, punctuality,  and  good  faith.  He  subsequently  received  pro- 


HENRY  ECKFORD.  215 

posals  to  build  two  frigates  for  Greece ;  but  as  he  thought  he 
perceived,  on  the  part  of  the  agents,  a  disposition  to  take  an  unfair 
advantage  of  the  necessities  of  that  nation,  he  honorably  and  hu- 
manely declined  their  tempting  propositions.  All  are  aware  of 
the  disastrous  and  (to  this  country)  disgraceful  manner  in  which 
that  business  terminated. 

Upon  the  accession  of  General  Jackson  to  the  presidency,  he 
received  from*  him  an  invitation  to  furnish  him  with  a  plan  for  a 
new  organization  of  the  navy.  This  was  promptly  furnished,  and 
was  pronounced  by  all  who  read  it  to  be  exactly  what  was  required 
for  an  efficient  and  economical  administration  of  the  navy.  It  was 
not  acted  upon,  although  its  adoption  would  have  materially  ad- 
vanced the  interests  of  the  country.  Among  other  novel  proposi- 
tions, it  was  recommended  to  remodel  entirely  the  dockyards. 
These  were  to  be  under  the  superintendence  of  superannuated 
commodores,  who,  in  taking  command,  would  relinquish  their  rank 
and  make  way  for  more  active  officers.  The  constructor  at  each 
yard  was  to  be  held  responsible  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
work  done,  and  only  amenable  to  the  chief  constructor  at  Wash- 
ington. This  latter  office,  he  took  occasion,  however,  to  say,  he 
could  not,  under  any  circumstances,  be  persuaded  to  accept.  He 
wished,  in  short,  from  what  he  had  himself  observed  of  the  extra- 
vagance, waste,  and  delay  at  our  dockyards,  to  place  them  on  a 
civil  footing,  as  more  consonant  to  the  feelings  of  the  mechanics 
and  the  spirit  of  our  institutions. 

About  this-  period  he  determined  to  prepare  and  publish  a  work 
on  naval  architecture,  for  which  he  had  ample  materials,  and 
numerous  draughts  of  vessels  of  almost  every  class.  He  had  also 
set  aside  twenty  thousand  dollars  to  establish  a  professorship  of 
naval  architecture  in  Columbia  college,  and  had  already  entered 
into  correspondence  with  an  eminent  constructor,  Mr.  Doughty, 
whom  he  had  intended  as  the  first  professor,  when  a  disastrous 
affair  occurred,  involving  his  reputation  and  his  ample  fortune. 
An  insurance  company,  in  which  he  was  largely  interested,  be- 
came, in  the  panic  of  the  day,  insolvent,  and  its  creditors  ventured, 
in  the  madness  of  the  moment,  to  throw  doubts  on  the  hitherto 
unimpeached  character  of  Mr.  Eckford.  In  this  they  were  aided 
by  a  knot  of  political  partisans,  to  whom  his  silent,  but  gradually 
increasing  popularity,  (which  had,  Jong  ere  this,  placed  him  in 
the  state  legislature,)  was  gall  and  wormwood.  Notwithstanding 
he  satisfactorily  proved  that  he  had  lost,  by  stock,  and  other  ad- 
vances to  save  the  sinking  credit  of  the  company,  nearly  half  a 
million  of  dollars,  yet  his  enemies  affected  to  discredit  his  testi- 
mony, upon  the  ground  that  such  unparalleled  sacrifices  were  too 


216  AMERICAN  MECHANICS. 

disinterested  to  be  credible.  The  termination  of  the  investigation 
resulted  in  his  complete  and  honorable  acquittal,  but  the  venomed 
shaft  rankled  in  his  kind  and  gentle  breast  to  the  hour  of  his 
death.  It  is  no  consolation  to  his  numerous  friends  and  relatives 
to  know,  that  all  who  joined  in  this  base  conspiracy  against  this 
pure-minded  and  well-principled  man  have  since  paid  the  forfeit 
of  their  infuriated  zeal,  by  the  silent,  but  withering  contempt  of 
their  fellow-citizens. 

In  1831,  he  built  a  sloop-of-war  for  the  Sultan  Mahmoud,  and 
was  induced  to  visit  Turkey.  His  fame  as  a  skilful  architect  had 
preceded  him,  and  he  was  shortly  afterwards  offered  the  situation 
of  chief  naval  constructor  for  the  empire.  A  field  worthy  of  his 
enterprise  seemed  open  to  him.  With  his  characteristic  energy 
he  commenced  the  organization  of  the  navy  yard,  and  laid  down 
the  keel  of  a  ship  of  the  line.  He  had  rapidly  entered  in  her  con- 
struction, and  had  so  far  advanced  in  the  favor  of  the  sultan  that 
preparations  were  in  train  to  create  him  a  Bey  of  the  empire,  when 
his  labors  were  suddenly  brought  to  a  close  by  his  lamented  death, 
from  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  which  occurred  November  12, 
1832,  in  the  fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

In  private  life,  Eckford  was  remarkably  simple  in  his  manners 
and  habits.  Abstemious  and  temperate,  he  always  possessed  un- 
clouded faculties  ;  and  his  quiet  attention  and  kindness  to  all  under 
his  control  enabled  him  to  secure  their  ready  co-operation  in  any 
of  his  plans  which  required  from  them  willing  and  prompt  exer- 
tions. The  scrupulous  observance  of  his  contracts  to  the  mi- 
nutest particular  was  with  him  a  point  of  honor  ;  and  his  dealings 
with  his  fellow-men  bore  rather  the  character  of  princely  munifi- 
cence than  the  generosity  of  a  private  individual.  Throughout 
life,  and  amid  transactions  involving  millions,  he  maintained  the 
same  unassuming  habits,  considering  himself  but  the  mere  trustee 
for  the  benefit  of  others ;  and  died  as  he  had  lived,  honored  and 
beloved  by  all  who  knew  him. 


JOHN  SMEATON. 


FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 


JOHN  SMEATON. 

JOHN  SMEATON  was  born  the  28th  of  May,  1724,  at  Austhorpe, 
near  Leeds.  The  strength  of  his  understanding  and  the  origin- 
ality of  his  genius  appeared  at  an  early  age.  His  playthings, 
it  is  said  by  one  long  well  acquainted  with  him,  were  not  the 
playthings  of  children,  but  the  tools  men  work  with,  and  he  ap- 
peared to  derive  more  pleasure  from  seeing  the  men  in  the  neigh- 
borhood work,  and  asking  them  questions,  than  from  any  thing  else. 
When  not  quite  six  years  old,  he  was  seen  one  day,  much  to  the 
alarm  of  his  friends,  on  the  top  of  his  father's  barn,  fixing  up  some- 
thing like  a  windmill.  Not  long  after  he  attended  some  men  fix-- 
ing a  pump  at  a  neighboring  village,  and  observing  them  cut 
off  a  piece  of  bored  pipe,  he  was  so  lucky  as  to  procure  it,  and 
actually  made  with  it  a  working  punip  that  raised  water.  In  his 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  years,  he  made  for  himself  an  engine  to 
turn  rose- work,  and  presented  his  friends  with  boxes  turned  in 
ivory  or  wood.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  had  acquired  by  the 
strength  of  his  genius  and  indefatigable  industry,  an  extensive  set 
of  tools,  and  the  art  of  working  in  most  of  the  mechanical  trades, 
without  the  assistance  of  any  master,  and  this  with  an  expertness 
seldom  surpassed. 

His  father  was  an  attorney,  and  intended  to  bring  up  his  son  to 
his  own  profession ;  but  the  latter  finding,  to  use  his  own  words, 
"  that  the  law  did  not  suit  the  bent  of  his  genius,"  obtained  his 
parent's  consent  that  he  should  seek  a  more  congenial  employment. 
Accordingly  he  came  to  London,  where  he  established  himself  as 
a  mathematical  instrument  maker,  and  soon  became  known  to  the 
scientific  circles  by  several  ingenious  inventions ;  among  which 
were  a  new  kind  of  magnetic  compass,  and  a  machine  for  measur- 
ing a  ship's  way  at  sea. 

In  1753,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
contributed  several  papers  to,  their  philosophical  transactions.  In 
the  succeeding  year  he  visited  Holland,  travelling  mostly  on  foot 

16 


220  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

and  in  passage-boats,  to  make  himself  master,  with  greater  easer 
of  the  mechanical  contrivances  of  those  countries.  A  few  years 
after  his  return  he  was  applied  to,  to  rebuild  the  Eddystone  light- 
house, a  structure  which  has  rendered  his  name  so  celebrated.  To 
more  fully  illustrate  the  difficulties  he  had  to  surmount,  we  give  in 
connection  a  brief  history  of  the  lighthouse. 

Eddystone  lighthouse  is  erected  on  one  of  the  rocks  of  that  name, 
which  lie  in  the  English  Channel  about  fourteen  miles  S.S.W.  from 
Plymouth.  The  nearest  land  to  the  Eddystone  rocks  is  the  point 
to  the  west  of  Plymouth  called  the  Ram  Head,  from  which  they 
are  about  ten  miles  almost  directly  south.  As  these  rocks  (called 
the  Eddystone,  in  all  probability,  from  the  whirl  or  eddy  which  is 
occasioned  by  the  waters  striking  against  them)  were  not  very 
much  elevated  above  the  sea  at  any  time,  and  at  high  water  were 
quite  covered  by  it,  they  formed  a  most  dangerous  obstacle  to  nav- 
igation, and  several  vessels  were  every  season  lost  upon  them. 
Many  a  gallant  ship  which  had  voyaged  in  safety  across  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  Atlantic,  was  shattered  to  pieces  on  this  hidden 
source  of  destruction  as  it  was  nearing  port,  and  went  down  with 
its  crew  in  sight  of  their  native  shores.  It  was  therefore  very  de- 
sirable that  the  spot  should,  if  possible,  be  pointed  out  by  a  warning 
light.  But  the  same  circumstances  which  made  the  Eddystone 
rocks  so  formidable  to  the  mariner,  rendered  the  attempt  to  erect 
a  lighthonse  upon  them  a  peculiarly  difficult  enterprise.  The  task, 
however,  was  at  last  undertaken  by  a  Mr.  Henry  Winstanley,  of 
Littlebury  in  Essex,  a  gentleman  of  some  property,  and  not  a  reg- 
ularly-bred engineer  or  architect,  but  only  a  person  with  a  natural 
turn  for  mechanical  invention,  and  fond  of  amusing  himself  with 
ingenius  experiments,,  and  withal  was  somewhat  of  an  excentric 
character.  In  his  house  at  Littlebury,  a  visiter  would  enter  a  room 
where  he  saw  an  old  slipper  on  the  floor  ;  he  would  kick  away  the 
slipper,  and  a  figure  with  the  appearance  of  a  being  from  the  other 
world  would  start  up  before  him.  He  would  sit  down  in  a  chair, 
and  immediately  a  pair  of  arms  would  clasp  him  around  the  waist. 
He  would  go  into  an  arbor  in  the  garden,  by  the  side  of  a  canal, 
and  straightway  he  would  find  himself  afloat  in  the  middle  of  that 
piece  of  water,  without  the  power  of  getting  ashore,  until  a  per- 
son in  the  secret  had  moved  certain  machinery.  Mr.  Winstanley 
also  contrived  some  ingenious  water- works. 

The  fabric  erected  by  this  amateur  engineer,  upon  the  Eddy- 
stone,  was  of  timber,  sixty  feet  high,  and  was  four  years  in  build- 
ing ;  during  which  time  the  workmen  suffered  much  from  bad 
weather,  and  were  once  or  twice  taken  off  in  a  state  of  starvation, 
after  having  been  for  weeks  debarred  all  intercourse  with  the  land. 


JOHN    SMEATON.  221 

Finding  that  the  waves  often  rose  so  high  as  to  bury  the  lantern, 
Mr.  Winstanley,  in  the  fourth  year,  enlarged  the  base  and  added 
forty  feet  to  the  height ;  and  yet  in  violent  weather  the  sea  would 
seem  to  fly  a  hundred  feet  above  the  vane ;  and  it  was  generally 
said  that  a  six-oared  boat  might  have  been  directed  on  the  top  of 
a  wave  through  the  open  gallery  of  the  lighthouse.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1703,  some  repairs  being  required,  Mr.  Winstanley  went 
down  to  Plymouth  to  superintend  the  performance  of  them.  The 
general  opinion  was,  that  the  building  would  not  be  of  long  dura- 
tion ;  but  the  builder  held  different  sentiments.  As  he  was  about 
to  embark  with  his  workmen,  the  danger  was  intimated  to  him  in 
a  friendly  manner,  and  it  was  remarked  that  one  day  or  other  the 
lighthouse  would  certainly  overset.  To  this  he  replied,  that  he 
was  so  well  assured  of  its  stability,  "  that  he  should  only  wish  to  be 
there  in  the  greatest  storm  that  ever  New"  In  this  wish  he  was 
but  too  soon  gratified ;  for  on  the  26th  of  the  month  just  men- 
tioned, while  he  was  still  superintending  the  repairs,  there  occurred 
one  of  the  severest  storms  within  the  memory  of  the  oldest  inhabit- 
ants ;  being  the  same  which  Defoe  thought  proper  to  chronicle  in 
a  volume  under  the  title  of  "  THE  STORM."  When  the  people 
looked  abroad  the  next  morning,  not  a  trace  of  the  Eddystone 
lighthouse  was  to  be  seen.  The  whole  fabric,  with  its  ingenious 
architect,  and  many  other  persons,  had  perished. 

As  if  to  show  the  necessity  of  instantly  rebuilding  it,  the  Win- 
chelsea,  a  homeward-bound  Virginiaman,  almost  immediately 
after,  struck  upon  the  rock,  and  was  lost,  with  most  of  the  crew. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  1706,  that  a  new  work  was  commenced. 
The  second  Eddystone  lighthouse  was  built  as  the  private  under- 
taking of  a  Captain  Lovett.  The  immediate  architect  was  Mr. 
John  Rudyard,  a  linen  draper,  who,  like  Winstanley,  seems  to 
have  had  a  taste  for  mechanical  pursuits.  The  building  was  in 
the  lower  part  constructed  of  alternate  courses  of  granite  and  oak 
timber ;  in  the  upper  part,  of  timber  alone  :  the  whole  being  cased 
in  timber  very  carefully  jointed.  The  light-room  was  sixty-one 
feet  above  the  rock,  and  the  whole  height  to  the  ball  at  the  top 
was  ninety-two.  The  general  form  was  circular,  and  there  were 
no  projections  of  any  kind,  in  both  of  which  respects  it  improved 
upon  the  former  building,  which  was  heavy  cornered,  with  many 
superfluous  ornaments.  During  the  progress  of  the  work,  a 
French  privateer  took  the  men  upon  the  lighthouse,  together  with 
their  tools,  and  carried  them  to  France,  where  the  captain,  it  is 
said,  expected  a  reward  for  his  exploit.  While  the  captives  lay 
in  prison,  the  transaction  reached  the  ears  of  Louis  XIV.  who 
immediately  ordered  them  to  be  released,  and  the  captors  to  be 


222  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

put  into  their  place ;  declaring  that  though  he  was  at  war  with 
England,  he  was  not  at  war  with  mankind.  He  accordingly 
directed  the  men  to  be  returned  to  their  work  with  presents,  as  a 
compensation  for  the  inconvenience  which  they  had  suffered. 
The  lighthouse  was  completed  in  1709. 

From  the  simplicity  of  the  figure  of  this  building,  and  the  judg- 
ment shown  in  its  construction,  it  was  considered  likely,  notwith- 
standing the  nature  of  the  materials,  to  have  withstood  the  effects 
of  the  winds  and  waves  for  an  unlimited  period.  It  was  doomed, 
however,  to  fall  before  an  accident  which  had  not  been  calculated 
upon.  At  two  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  3d  of  December, 
1755,  one  of  the  three  men  who  had  the  c-harge  of  it,  having  gone 
up  to  snuff  the  candles  in  the  lantern,  found  the  place  full  of  smoke, 
from  the  midst  of  which,  as  soon  as  he  opened  the  door,  a  flame 
burst  forth.  A  spark  from  some  of  the  twenty-four  candles, 
which  were  kept  constantly  burning,  had  probably  ignited  the- 
wood-work,  or  the  flakes  of  soot  hanging  from  the  roof.  The> 
man  instantly  alarmed  his  companions ;  but  being  in,  bed  and 
asleep,  it  was  some  time  before  they  arrived  to  his  assistance.. 
In  the  mean  time  he  did  his  utmost;  to  effect  the  extinction  of  the 
fire  by  heaving  water  up  to  it  (it  was  burning  four  yards  above 
him)  from  a  tubful  which  always  stood  in  the  place.  The  other 
tw,o,  when  they  came*  brought  up  rnpre  water  from  below  ;  but  a<S; 
they  had  to  go  down  and  return  a  height  of  seventy  feet  for  this 
purpose,  their  endeavors  were  of  little  avail.  At  last  a  quantity 
of  the  lead  on  the  roof  having  melted,  came  down  in  a  torrent 
upon  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  man  who  remained  above.. 
He  was  an  old  man  of  ninety-four,  of  the  name  of  Henry  Hall;, 
but  still  full  of  strength  and;  activity.  This  accident,  together 
with  the  rapid  increase  of  the  fire,  notwithstanding  their  most 
desperate  exertions,  extinguished  their  last  hopes ;  and  making 
scarcely  any  further  efforts  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  destroy- 
ing element,  they  descended  before  it  from,  room  to,  room,  till  they 
came  to  the  lowest  floor.  Driven  from  this  also,  they  then  sought 
refuge  ia  a  hole  or  cave  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  rock,  it  being 
fortunately  by  this  time  low  water.  Meanwhile  the  conflagration 
had  been  observed  by  some  fishermen,  w,ho  immediately  returned 
to  the  shore  and  gave  information  of  it.  Boats,  of  course, 
were  immediately  sent  out.  They  arrived  at  the  lighthouse 
about  ten  o'clock,  and  with  the  utmost  difficulty  a  landing  was 
effected,  and  the  three  men,  who  were  by  this  time  almost  in 
a  state  of  stupefaction,,  were  dragged  through  the  water  into 
one  of  the  boats.  One  of  them,  as  soon  as  he  was  brought  on 
shore,  as  if  strupk  w,ith  some  panic,  took  flight,  and  w.as  neyei: 


JOHN  SMEATON.  223 

more  heard  of.  As  for  old  Hall,  he  was  immediately  placed  under 
medical  care ;  but  although  he  took  his  food  tolerably  well,  and 
seemed  for  some  time  likely  to  recover,  he  always  persisted  in 
saying  that  the  doctors  would  never  bring  him  round,  unless  they 
could  remove  from  his  stomach  the  lead  which  he  maintained  had 
run  down  his  throat  when  it  fell  upon  him  from  the  roof  of  the 
lantern.  Nobody  could  believe  that  this  notion  was  any  thing 
more  than  an  imagination  of  the  old  man  ;  but  on  the  twelfth  day 
after  the  fire,  having  been  suddenly  seized  with  cold  sweats  and 
spasms,  he  expired  ;  and  when  his  body  was  opened  there  was 
actually  found  in  his  stomach,  to  the  coat  of  which  it  had  partly 
adhered,  a  flat  oval  piece  of  lead  of  the  weight  of  seven  ounces 
five  drams.  An  account  of  this  extraordinary  case  is  to  be  found 
in  the  49th  volume  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 

The  proprietors,  who  bv  this  time  had  become  numerous,  felt 
that  it  was  not  their  interest  to  lose  a  moment  in  setting  about 
the  rebuilding  of  the  lighthouse.  One  of  them,  a  Mr.  Weston,  in 
whom  the  others  placed  much  confidence,  made  application  to 
Lord  Macclesfield,  the  president  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  recom- 
mend to  them  the  person  whom  he  considered  most  fit  to  be  en- 
gaged.  His  lordship  immediately  named  and  most  strongly 
recommended  Mr.  Smeaton.  Once  more,  therefore,  the  Eddy- 
stone  lighthouse  was  destined  to  have  a  self-educated  architect  for 
its  builder.  When  it  was  first  proposed  that  the  work  should  be 
put  into  his  hands,  he  was  in  Northumberland  ;  but  he  arrived  in 
London  on  the  23d  of  February,  1756.  On  the  22d  of  March  he 
set  out  for  Plymouth,  but,  on  account  of  the  badness  of  the  roads, 
did  not  reach  the  end  of  his  journey  till  the  27th.  He  remained 
at  Plymouth  till  the  21st  of  May,  in  the  course  of  which  time  he 
repeatedly  visited  the  rock,  and  having,  with  the  consent  of  his 
employers,  determined  that  the  new  lighthouse  should  be  of  stone, 
hired  workyards  and  workmen,  contracted  for  the  various  mate- 
rials he  wanted,  and  made  all  the  necessary  arrangements  for 
beginning  and  carrying  on  the  work.  Every  thing  being  in  readi- 
ness, and  the  season  sufficiently  advanced,  on  the  fifth  of  August 
the  men  were  landed  on  the  rock,  and  immediately  began  cutting 
it  for  the  foundation  of  the  building.  This  part  of  the  work  was 
all  that  was  accomplished  that  season,  in  the  course  of  which, 
however,  both  the  exertions  and  the  perils  of  the  architect  and  his 
associates  were  very  great.  On  one  occasion  the  sloop  in  which 
Mr.  Smeaton  was,  with  eighteen  seamen  and  laborers,  was  all 
but  lost  in  returning  from  the  work. 

During  this  time  the  belief  and  expressed  opinion  of  all  sorts  of 
persons  was  that  a  stone  lighthouse  would  certainly  not  stand  the 

16* 


224  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

winds  and  seas  to  which  it  would  be  exposed  on  the  Eddystone 
However,  on  the  12th  of  June,  1757,  the  first  stone  was  laid. 

From  this  period  the  work  proceeded  with  great  rapidity.  On 
the  26th  of  August,  1759,  all  the  stonework  was  completed.  On 
the  9th  of  October  following  the  building  was  finished  in  every 
part ;  and  on  the  16th  of  the  same  month  the  saving  light  was 
again  streaming  from  its  summit  over  the  waves.  Thus  the  whole 
undertaking  was  accomplished  within  a  space  of  little  more  than 
three  years,  "  without  the  loss  of  life  or  limb,11  says  Mr.  Smeaton, 
"  to  any  one  concerned  in  it,  or  accident  by  which  the  work  could 
be  said  to  be  materially  retarded.  During  all  this  time  there  had 
been  only  four  hundred  and  twenty-one  days,  comprising  two 
thousand  six  hundred  and  seventy-four  hours,  which  it  had  been 
possible  for  the  men  to  spend  upon  the  rock  j.  and  the  whole  time 
which*  they  had  been  at  work  there  was  only  one  hundred  and 
eleven  days  ten  hours,  or  scarcely  sixteen  weeks.  Nothing  can 
show  more  strikingly  than  this  statement  the  extraordinary  diffi- 
culties under  which  the  work  had  to  be  carried  on. 

Smeaton  spent  much  time  in  considering  the  best  method  of 
grafting  his  work  securely  on  the  solid  rock,  and  giving  it  the 
form  best  suited  to  secure  stability ;  and  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing parts  of  his  interesting  account  is,  that  in  which  he  narrates 
how  he  was  led  to  choose  the  shape  which  he  adopted,  by  con- 
sidering the  means  employed  by  nature  to  produce  stability  in  her 
works.  The  building  is  modelled  on  the  trunk  of  an  oak,  which 
spreads  out  in  a  sweeping  curve  near  the  roots,  so  as  to  give 
breadth  and  strength  to  its  base,,  diminishes  as  it  rises,  and  again 
swells  out  as  it  approaches  to  the  bushy  head,  to  give  room  for 
the  strong  insertion  of  the  principal  boughs.  The  latter  is  repre- 
sented by  a  curved  cornice,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  throw  off  the 
heavy  seas,  which,  being  suddenly  checked,  fly  up,  it  is  said,  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  above  the  very  top  of  the  building,  and 
thus  are  prevented  from  striking  the  lantern,  even  when  they, 
seem  entirely  to  enclose  it. 

To  prepare  a  fit  base  for  the  reception  of  the  column,  the 
shelving  rock  was  cut  into  six  steps,  which  were  filled  up  with, 
masonry,  firmly  dovetailed  and  pinned  with  oaken  trenails  to  the 
living  stone,  so  that  the  upper  course  presented  a  level  circular 
surface.  The  building  is  faced  with  Cornish  granite,  called  in. 
the  country,  moorstone ;  a  material  selected  on  account  of  its 
durability  and  hardness,  which  bids  defiance  to  the  depredations 
of  marine  animals,  which  have  been  known  to- do,  serious  injury, 
by  perforating  Portland  stone  when  placed  under  water.  The 
inferior  is  built  of  Portland  stone,  which  is  more  easily  obtained, 


JOHN  SMEATON.  225 

in  large  blocks,  and  is  less  expensive  in  the  working.  It  is  an 
instructive  lesson  not  only  to  the  young  engineer,  but  to  all  per- 
sons, to  see  the  diligence  which  Smeaton  used  to  ascertain  what 
kind  of  stone  was  best  fitted  to  his  purposes,  and  from  what  ma- 
terials the  firmest  and  most  lasting  cement  could  be  obtained. 
He  well  knew  that  in  novel  and  great  undertakings  no  precaution 
can  be  deemed  superfluous  which  may  contribute  to  success ;  and 
that  it  is  wrong  to  trust  implicitly  to  common  methods,  even  when 
experience  has  shown  them  to  be  sufficient  in  common  cases. 
For  the  height  of  twelve  feet  from  the  rock  the  building  is  solid. 
Every  course  of  masonry  is  composed  of  stones  firmly  jointed  and 
dovetailed  into  each  other,  and  secured  to  the  course  below  by 
joggles,  or  solid  plugs  of  stone,  which  being  let  into  both,  effectu- 
ally resist  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  waves,  which  tend  to  push 
off  the  upper  from  the  under  course. 


[Horizontal  Section  of  the  lower  and  solid  part  of  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse ;  showing  the 
mode  in  which  the  courses  of  stone  are  dovetailed  together.] 

The  interior,  which  is  accessible  by  a  moveable  ladder,  consists 
of  four  rooms,  one  above  the  other,  surmounted  by  a  glass  lantern, 
in  which  the  lights  are  placed.  The  height  from  the  lowest  point 
of  the  foundation  to  the  floor  of  the  lantern  is  seventy  feet ;  the 
height  of  the  lantern  is  twenty-one  feet  more.  The  building  has 
braved,  uninjured,  the  storms  of  eighty  winters,  and  is  likely  long 
to  remain  a  monument  almost  as  elegant,  and  far  more  useful 
than  the  most  splendid  column  ever  raised  to  commemorate  impe- 
rial victories.  Its  erection  forms  an  era  in  the  history  of  light- 
houses, a  subject  of  great  importance  to  a  maritime  nation.  It 
came  perfect  from  the  mind  of  the  artist,  and  has  left  nothing  to 
be  added  or  improved.  After  such  an  example,  no  rock  can  be 


226  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

considered  impracticable :  and  in  the  more  recent  erection  of  a 
lighthouse  on  the  dangerous  Bell-rock,  lying  off  the  coast  of  For- 
farshire,  Scotland,  which  is  built  exactly  on  the  same  model,  we 
see  the  best  proof  of  the  value  of  an  impulse,  such  as  was  given 
to  this  subject  by  Smeaton. 

Among  many  other  tempests  which  this  structure  has  endured 
unshaken,  was  one  of  extraordinary  fury,  which  occurred  in  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1762.  One  individual,  who  was  fond  of 
predicting  its  fate,  declared  on  that  occasion,  "  that  if  it  stood  then, 
it  would  stand  until  the  day  of  judgment!"  On  the  morning  after 
the  storm  had  spent  its  chief  fury,  many  anxious  observers  pointed 
their  glasses  to  the  spot,  where  they  scarcely  expected  ever  to  dis- 
cern it,  and  a  feeling  almost  of  wonder,  mixed  itself  with  the  joy, 
thankfulness,  and  pride  of  the  architect's  friends,  as  they  with  dif- 
ficulty descried  its  form  through  the  still  dark  and  troubled  air.  It 
was  uninjured  even  to  a  pane  of  glass  in  the  lantern.  In  a  letter 
from  Plymouth,  written  upon  this  occasion,  the  writer  says  : — "  It 
is  now  my  most  steady  belief,  as  well  as  everybody's  here,  that  its 
inhabitants  are  rather  more  secure  in  a  storm,  under  the  united 
force  of  wind  and  water,  than  we  are  in  our  houses  from  the  former 
only." 

According  to  the  account  published  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  the  light- 
house was  attended  by  three  men,  who  each  received  a  salary  of 
twenty-five  pounds  a  year,  with  an  occasional  absence  in  the  sum- 
mer. At  an  earlier  period  there  had  been  only  two  who  had 
watched  alternately  four  hours  ;  but  one  being  taken  ill  and  dying, 
the  necessity  of  a  third  hand  became  apparent.  On  the  death  of 
his  companion,  the  survivor  found  himself  in  an  awkward  predica- 
ment. Being  apprehensive  if  he  tumbled  the  body  into  the  sea, 
which  was  the  only  method  he  had  of  disposing  of  it,  he  might  be 
charged  with  murder,  he  was  induced  for  some  time  to  let  the  dead 
body  lie,  in  hopes  that  the  boat  might  come  and  relieve  him  from 
his  embarrassment.  A  month  elapsed  before  the  boat  could  land, 
and  by  that  time  he  was  in  a  state  of  distress  beyond  all  descrip- 
tion, in  consequence  of  the  decay  of  the  corpse,  which  for  some 
time  had  been  in  such  a  state  that  he  could  not  remove  it,  how- 
ever anxious  to  do  so.  A  less  painful  result  of  the  employment  of 
only  two  men  is  related.  On  some  pique  arising  between  them 
they  forebore  to  speak  to  each  other,  and  incredible  as  it  may  ap- 
pear, spent  a  month  together  in  this  wild  solitude,  without  exchang- 
ing a  word.  Another  anecdote  of  the  lighthouse  may  be  related. 
A  man  who  had  been  a  shoemaker  being  employed  to  go  out  as 
one  of  the  keepers,  was  on  his  way  to  the  rock,  when  the  master 
of  the  yacht  said  to  him,  "  How  happens  it,  friend  Jacob,  that  you 


EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE  IN  A  STORM. 


JOHN    SMEATON.  229 

should  choose  to  become  a  light-keeper,  at  scarce  ten  shillings  a 
week,  when,  as  I  am  told,  you  can  earn  half-a-crown  and  three 
shillings  a  day  in  making  leather  hose  ?"  "  Why,'1  answered  the 
craftsman,  "  I  go  to  be  a  light-keeper,  because  I  don't  like  confine- 
ment!'1'1 This  answer  producing  a  little  merriment,  he  explained 
himself  that  he  did  not  like  to  be  confined  to  work. 

Smeaton's  wonderful  success  in  this  undertaking  established  his 
reputation,  and  his  after  labors  are  connected  with  almost  every 
great  work  of  his  time.  It  would  be  in  vain,  however,  to  enumer- 
ate all  the  projects  in  which  he  was  consulted,  or  the  schemes 
which  he  executed. 

The  variety  and  extent  of  his  employments  may  be  best  estima- 
ted from  his  Reports,  which  fill  three  quarto  volumes,  and  consti- 
tute a  most  interesting  and  valuable  series  of  treatises  on  eveiy 
branch  of  engineering :  as  draining,  bridge-building,  making  and 
improving  canals  and  navigable  rivers,  planning  docks  and  harbors, 
the  improvement  of  mill-work,  and  the  application  of  mechanical 
improvements  to  different  manufactures.  They  contain  descrip- 
tions of  his  inventions,  together  with  a  treatise  on  mill- work,  and 
some  papers  which  show  that  he  was  fond  of  astronomy  and  prac- 
tically skilled  in  it. 

His  health  began  to  decline  about  1785,  and  he  endeavored  to 
withdraw  from  business,  and  devote  his  attention  to  publishing  an 
account  of  his  inventions  and  works ;  for,  as  he  often  said,  "  he 
thought  he  could  not  render  so  much  service  to  his  country  as  by 
doing  that."  He  succeeded  in  bringing  out  his  elaborate  account 
of  the  Eddystone  lighthouse,  published  in  1791.  But  he  found  it  im- 
possible to  withdraw  entirely  from  business ;  and  it  appears  that  over- 
exertion  and  anxiety  did  actually  bring  on  an  attack  of  paralysis 
to  which  his  family  was  constitutionally  liable.  He  was  taken  ill 
at  his  residence  at  Austhorpe,  in  September,  1792,  and  died  Octo- 
ber 28th,  in  the  sixty-ninth  year  of  his  age.  He  had  long  looked 
to  this  disease  as  the  probable  termination  of  his  life,  and  felt  some 
anxiety  concerning  the  likelihood  of  outliving  his  faculties,  and  in 
his  own  words  of  "  lingering  over  the  dregs  after  the  spirit  had 
evaporated."  This  calamity  was  spared  him  :  in  the  interval  be- 
tween his  first  attack  and  death  his  mind  was  unclouded,  and  he 
continued  to  take  his  usual  interest  in  the  occupations  of  the  do- 
mestic circle.  Sometimes  only,  he  would  complain  with  a  smile 
of  his  slowness  of  apprehension,  and  say,  "  It  cannot  be  otherwise  : 
the  shadow  must  lengthen  as  the  sun  goes  down." 

His  character  was  marked  by  undeviating  uprightness,  industry, 
and  moderation  in  the  pursuit  of  riches.  His  gains  might  have 
been  far  larger,  but  he  relinquished  more  than  one  appointment 


230  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

which  brought  in  a  considerable  income,  to  devote  his  attention  to 
other  objects  which  he  had  more  at  heart ;  and  he  declined  mag- 
nificent  offers  from  Catherine  II.  of  Russia,  who  would  have  bought 
his  services  at  any  price.  His  industry  was  unwearied,  and  the 
distribution  of  his  hours  and  employments  strictly  laid  down  by 
rule.  In  his  family  and  by  his  friends  he  was  singularly  beloved, 
though  his  demeanor  sometimes  appeared  harsh  to  strangers.  A 
brief,  but  very  interesting  and  affectionate  account  of  him,  written 
by  his  daughter,  is  prefixed  to  his  Reports,  from  which  many  of 
the  anecdotes  here  related  have  been  derived. 

The  rule  of  his  practice,  and  one  which  he  adhered  to  with  the 
most  undeviating  firmness,  was  never  to  trust  to  deductions  drawn 
from  a  theory  in  cases  where  he  could  have  any  opportunity  of  a 
trial.  As  he  got  older,  he  used  to  say,  "  Care  not  about  any  the- 
ory at  all.  A  man  of  experience  does  not  require  it.  In  my 
intercourse  with  mankind,  I  have  always  found  those  who  would 
thrust  theory  into  practical  matters,  at  bottom  to  be  men  of  no  judg. 
ment  and  pure  quacks.  In  my  own  practice,  almost  every  succes- 
sive case  would  have  required  an  independent  theory  of  its  own ; 
theory  and  quackery  go  hand  in  hand." 

Smeaton  appeared  to  Playfair  as  a  man  of  excellent  understand, 
ing,  improved  more  by  very  extensive  experience  and  observation, 
than  by  learning  or  education.  He  had  much  the  appearance  of 
an  honest  and  worthy  man  ;  his  manners  not  much  polished  ;  his 
conversation  most  instructive  in  any  thing  relating  to  mechanics, 
or  the  business  of  an  engineer ;  but  in  conversation  the  embar- 
rassment of  his  language  was  very  great. 


EDWARD    SOMERSET, 

MARQUIS  OF  WORCESTER, 
INVENTOR  OF  THE  STEAM  ENGINE. 

EDWARD  SOMERSET,  Marquis  of  Worcester,  was  born  at  Ragland 
Castle,  near  Monmouth,  about  the  year  1597.  Very  little  is  pre- 
served respecting  the  history  of  this  ingenious  nobleman,  and  our 
notice  must  be  therefore  necessarily  brief.  During  the  civil  war 
between  Charles  the  First  and  the  parliament,  Worcester,  being 
then  a  young  man,  espoused  the  cause  of  his  king,  and  after  the 


WORCESTER, 

THE   INVENTOR   OF   THE   STEAM   ENGINE. 


WORCESTER.  233 

surprise  and  capture  of  Monmouth  by  the  parliamentary  army,  at 
the  head  of  a  small  party  of  volunteers,  he  .scaled  a  redoubt,  passed 
the  ditch,  put  the  guard  to  death,  dashed  sword  in  hand  into  the 
place,  retook  it,  and  made  the  garrison  prisoners.  This  brave  and 
daring  achievement  established  his  reputation  for  courage  and 
enterprise. 

A  short  time  after  he  was  sent  into  Ireland,  to  negotiate  for 
bringing  over  a  large  body  of  Irish  to  the  royal  cause;  but  not 
succeeding,  his  conduct  was  artfully  misrepresented  by  those  en- 
vious of  his  fame.  Popular  feeling  thus  setting  against  him, 
Worcester  considered  it  prudent  to  seek  safety  from  its  virulence 
by  coming  over  to  France.  To  fill  up  the  cup  of  his  misfortunes, 
Ragland  Castle,  the  home  of  his  childhood,  was  besieged ;  and 
after  being  defended  by  his  father  with  the  courage  of  an  old 
Roman,  it  surrendered  at  last  upon  honorable  conditions ;  these 
however  were  perfidiously  broken,  and  the  venerable  old  man 
survived  the  catastrophe  but  a  few  months.  The  ruin  of  the 
family  now  seemed  complete,  the  seat  of  its  splendor  was  destroyed, 
its  majestic  woods  were  consigned  to  the  axe,  its  domain  alienated, 
and  its  chief  an  exile. 

During  the  ascendancy  of  parliament  Worcester  resided  abroad. 
WThen  again  in  an  unfortunate  hour  accepting  a  commission  from 
the  heir  to  the  throne,  (afterwards  Charles  II.,)  he  proceeded  to 
London  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  private  intelligence  and  sup- 
plies  of  money,  of  which  his  master  stood  in  the  greatest  need. 
He  was,  however,  speedily  discovered  and  committed  a  close  pri- 
soner to  the  Tower,  where  he  remained  in  captivity  several  years. 
While  in  confinement,  his  time  was  beguiled  by  those  mechanical 
amusements  which  ever  formed  his  greatest  source  of  happiness. 
Here,  according  to  tradition,  his  attention  was  first  drawn  to  the 
amazing  force  of  steam,  by  observing  the  rising  of  the  lid  of  a 
vessel  employed  in  cooking  in  his  chamber,  and  from  this  circum- 
stance he  projected  that  wonderful  machine  which  has  thrown 
around  his  name  so  bright  a  radiance. 

The  return  of  the  king  from  France,  and  his  ascendancy  to  the 
throne ;  gave  Worcester  once  more  a  home,  but  now  in  his  old 
age  he  was  doomed  to  feel  all  the  miseries  of  hope  deferred.  The 
ear  of  the  king  was  closed  by  the  intrigues  of  enemies,  or  by  in- 
gratitude ;  and  the  man  who  had  spent  the  fortune  of  a  prince  in 
the  cause,  was  left,  in  its  final  triumph,  nearly  in  a  state  of  poverty, 
oppressed  with  debt  and  without  resources.  On  his  enlargement 
from  prison,  neither  the  ruin  of  his  own  fortune  nor  the  increasing 
infirmities  of  age  had  any  effect  in  damping  the  ardor  of  his  en- 
thusiasm,— when  other  minds  would  have  sunk  under  the  neglect 


234  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

and  distress  of  his  situation,  his  appeared  to  grow  more  elastic  as 
trouble  increased. 

In  the  year  1655,  Worcester  wrote  his  famous  Century  (hundred) 
of  Inventions.  This  work  contained  but  little  more  than  a  mere 
definition  of  what  the  inventions  were  destined  to  perform.  His 
object  in  committing  them  to  writing  appears  to  have  been  for  the 
purpose  of  reference,  when  he  should  be  in  a  situation  to  carry 
them  out ;  hence  the  descriptions,  although  well  enough  for  his  own 
purpose,  are  in  general  too  indefinite  for  comprehension.  The 
novelty  of  the  greater  number  of  the  hundred  propositions  or  de- 
scriptions of  which  this  volume  consists,  and  the  wonderful  nature 
of  others,  cast  an  air  of  improbability  over  the  whole  :  the  author 
was  charged  with  describing  many  things  which  he  wished  were 
invented,  rather  than  machines  which  he  had  actually  constructed* 
But  these  charges  are  scarcely  worth  noticing,  as  they  are  brought 
by  literary  men,  who  from  their  pursuits  are  incapable  of  judging 
of  the  feasibility  of  mechanical  projects.  Yet  this  collection  of 
descriptions  bears  internal  marks  of  being  in  many  cases  what  it 
professes,  drawn  up  from  actual  trials  of  machines  in  existence.  On 
an  attentive  examination  of  the  general  scope  of  his  inventions,  the 
greater  number  will  appear  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  wants 
of  his  accidental  situation,  and  a  small  portion  by  those  of  his 
station.  To  a  statesman  employed  in  highly  confidential  negotia- 
tions, the  secrecy  of  his  correspondence  would  be  of  the  greatest 
importance, — to  a  traveller  the  security  of  his  locks, — a  soldier  is 
mainly  interested  in  his  arms,  at  times  in  scaling  a  fortification,  or 
transmitting  intelligence  in  the  dark,*— and  the  projector  of  a  water* 
company  could  not  fail  of  laying  his  ingenuity  under  contribution 
in  devising  a  mode  of  raising  water  above  its  own  level.  These 
classes  comprises  the  greater  part  of  his  inventions,  and  if  he  did 
not  carry  them  all  into  execution,  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  so 
much  his  fault,  as  that  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived  ;  but  the  doubt 
is  greatly  lessened  by  considering  his  perseverance  and  his  means. 
For  thirty-five  years  he  employed  an  ingenious  mechanic  under 
his  own  eye,  whose  time  was  doubtless  spent  on  the  inventions 
described  in  the  Century.  In  the  machine  for  raising  water  by 
steam,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  describe  effects  so  clearly 
as  he  has  done,  without  actually  looking  at  a  machine  in  operation. 
His  description  (although  very  obscure)  is  contained  in  the  sixty- 
eighth  proposition,  in  connection  with  the  ninty-ninth  and  one  hun- 
dredth of  the  "  Century,"  and  evidently  proves  that  to  him  belongs 
the  honor  of  inventing  the  first  steam  engine. 

A  few  years  before  his  death  he  succeeded  in  procuring  an  act 
of  parliament  to  be  passed  enabling  himself  and  heirs,  for  ninety 


JAMES  FERGUSON. 


JAMES    FERGUSON.  235 

years  thereafter,  to  receive  the  sole  benefit,  profit,  and  advantage 
resulting  from  the  use  of  this  machine.  But  this  was  of  little  avail, 
for  like  men  of  a  similar  genius  in  more  humble  life,  he  was  op- 
pressed  by  poverty  and  want  of  encouragement ;  and  the  desire  of 
being  useful  to  his  country  in  the  way  which  his  experience  pointed 
out  as  of  all  others  the  most  effective,  gained  strength  as  his  offers 
of  service  were  rejected.  Although  at  every  period  of  life  he 
seems  to  have  been  deeply  impressed  with  the  feeling  that  progress 
was  never  made  in  any  thing  by  supine  wishes  and  dilatory  efforts, 
unremitting  perseverance  were  in  his  case  to  be  of  no  use  in  stem- 
ming the  tide  of  adverse  fortune.  His  wishes  were  written  in 
sand;  and  in  the  prosecution  of  philanthropic  projects,  he  was 
fated  not  only  to  experience  the  neglect  of  the  public,  but  the  in- 
gratitude of  friends,  without  being  convinced  of  the  hopelessness 
of  the  attempt  at  introducing  improvements  beyond  the  compre- 
hension and  spirit  of  the  age.  As  long  as  hope  survived,  and  that 
ceased  not  until  he  "  was  summoned  by  the  angel  of  death,"  he 
continued  to  prefer  with  vigor  his  claims  to  public  attention  and 
patronage. 

Worcester  died  in  poverty,  on  the  4th  of  April,  1667.  After 
his  death,  his  wife,  in  endeavoring  to  introduce  the  "  water  com- 
manding (steam)  engine"  into  general  use,  not  only  lay  under  the 
imputation  of  "  insanity"  for  thus  persisting  in  carrying  it  forward, 
but  was  expostulated  with  by  a  Romish  priest  as  being  "  instigated 
by  the  devil!"  „ 

From  a  manuscript  volume  containing  the  travels  of  Cosmo  de 
Medicis,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  first  printed  in  1818,  it  appears 
that  about  thirty  years  after  the  death  of  Worcester,  he  actually 
saw  his  steam  engine  in  use  pumping  up  water  in  London. 


JAMES    FERGUSON. 

AMONG  self-educated  men,  there  are  few  who  claim  more  of  our 
admiration  than  the  celebrated  JAMES  FERGUSON.  If  ever  any 
one  was  literally  his  own  instructor  in  the  very  elements  of  know- 
ledge, it  was  he.  Acquisitions  that  have  scarcely  in  any  other 
case,  and  probably  never  by  one  so  young,  been  made  without 
the  assistance  either  of  books  or  a  living  teacher,  were  the  dis- 
coveries of  his  solitary  and  almost  illiterate  boyhood.  There  are 
few  more  interesting  narratives  in  any  language  than  the  account 

17 


238  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

which  Ferguson  himself  has  given  of  his  early  history.  He  was 
born  in  the  year  1710,  a  few  miles  from  the  village  of  Keith,  in 
Banffshire  ;  his  parents,  as  he  tells  us,  being  in  the  humblest  con- 
dition of  life,  (for  his  father  was  merely  a  day-laborer,)  but  reli- 
gious and  honest.  It  was  his  father's  practice  to  teach  his  chil- 
dren himself  to  read  and  write,  as  they  successively  reached  what 
he  deemed  the  proper  age ;  but  James  was  too  impatient  to  wait 
till  his  regular  turn  came.  While  his  father  was  teaching  one 
of  his  elder  brothers,  James  was  secretly  occupied  in  listening  to 
what  was  going  on ;  and,  as  soon  as  he  was  left  alone,  used 
to  get  hold  of  the  book,  and  work  hard  in  endeavoring  to  master 
the  lesson  which  he  had  thus  heard  gone  over.  Being  ashamed, 
as  he  says,  to  let  his  father  know  what  he  was  about,  he  was  wont 
to  apply  to  an  old  woman  who  lived  in  a  neighboring  cottage  to 
solve  his  difficulties.  In  this  way  he  actually  learned  to  read 
tolerably  well  before  his  father  had  any  suspicion  that  he  knew  his 
letters.  His  father  at  last,  very  much  to  his  surprise,  detected 
him  one  day  reading  by  himself,  and  thus  found  out  his  secret. 

When  he  was  about  seven  or  eight  years  of  age,  a  simple  inci- 
dent occurred  which  seems  to  have  given  his  mind  its  first  bias  to 
what  became  afterwards  its  favorite  kind  of  pursuit — viz.  me- 
chanics. The  roof  of  the  cottage  having  partly  fallen  in,  his 
father,  in  order  to  raise  it  again,  applied  to  it  a  beam,  resting  on 
a  prop  in  the  manner  of  a  lever,  and  was  thus  enabled,  with  com- 
parative ease,  to  produce  what  seemed  to  his  son  quite  a  stupen- 
dous effect.  The  circumstance  set  our  young  philosopher  think- 
ing ;  and  after  a  while  it  struck  him  that  his  father,  in  using  the 
beam,  had  applied  his  strength  to  its  extremity,  and  this,  he  imme- 
diately concluded,  was  probably  an  important  circumstance  in  the 
matter.  He  proceeded  to  verify  his  notion  by  experiment ;  and 
having  made  several  levers,  which  he  called  bars,  soon  not  only 
found  that  he  was  right  in  his  conjecture  as  to  the  importance  of 
applying  the  moving  force  at  the  point  most  distant  from  the  ful- 
crum, but  discovered  the  rule  oy  law  of  the  machine,  namely,  that 
the  effect  of  any  form  or  weight  made  to  bear  upon  it  is  always 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  distance  of  the  point  on  which  it  rests 
from  the  fulcrum.  "  I  then,11  says  he,  "  thought  that  it  was  a 
great  pity  that,  by  means  of  this  bar,  a  weight  could  be  raised  but 
a  very  little  way.  On  this  I  soon  imagined  that,  by  pulling  round  a 
wheel,  the  weight  might  be  raised  to  any  height,  by  tying  a  rope  to 
the  weight,  and  winding  the  rope  round  the  axle  of  the  wheel,  and 
that  the  power  gained  must  be  just  as  great  as  the  wheel  was 
broader  than  the  axle  was  thick ;  and  found  it  to  be  exactly  so, 
by  hanging  one  weight  to  a  rope  put  round  the  wheel,  and  ano- 


JAMES    FERGUSON.  239 

ther  to  the  rope  that  coiled  round  the  axle.11  The  child  had  thus, 
it  will  be  observed,  actually  discovered  two  of  the  most  important 
elementary  truths  in  mechanics — the  lever,  and  the  wheel  and 
axle ;  he  afterwards  hit  upon  others ;  and,  all  the  while,  he  had 
not  only  possessed  neither  book  nor  teacher  to  assist  him,  but  was 
without  any  other  tools  than  a  simple  turning  lathe  of  his  father's, 
and  a  little  knife  wherewith  to  fashion  his  blocks  and  wheels,  and 
the  other  contrivances  he  needed  for  his  experiments.  After 
having  made  his  discoveries,  however,  he  next,  he  tells  us,  pro- 
ceeded to  write  an  account  of  them;  thinking  this  little  work, 
which  contained  sketches  of  the  different  machines  drawn  with  a 
pen,  to  be  the  first  treatise  ever  composed  of  the  sort.  When, 
some  time  after,  a  gentleman  showed  him  the  whole  in  a  printed 
book,  although  he  found  that  he  had  been  anticipated  in  his  inven- 
tions, he  was  much  pleased,  as  he  was  well  entitled  to  be,  on 
thus  perceiving  that  his  unaided  genius  had  already  carried  him 
so  far  into  what  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  region  of  true 
philosophy. 

He  spent  some  of  his  early  years  as  a  keeper  of  sheep,  in  the 
employment  of  a  small  farmer  in  the  neighborhood  of  his  native 
place.  He  was  sent  to  this  occupation,  he  tells  us,  as  being  of 
weak  body  ;  and  while  his  flock  was  feeding  around  him,  he  used 
to  busy  himself  in  making  models  of  mills,  spinning-wheels,  &c., 
daring  the  day,  and  in  studying  the  stars  at  night,  like  his  prede- 
cessors of  Chaldea.  When  a  little  older,  he  went  into  the  service 
of  another  farmer,  a  respectable  man  called  James  Glashan,  whose 
name  well  deserves  to  be  remembered.  After  the  labors  of  the 
day,  young  Ferguson  used  to  go  at  night  to  the  fields,  with  a 
blanket  about  him  and  a  lighted  candle,  and  there,  laying  himself 
down  on  his  back,  pursued  for  long  hours  his  observations  on  the 
heavenly  bodies.  "  I  used  to  stretch,11  says  he,  "  a  thread,  with 
small  beads  on  it,  at  arms1  length,  between- my  eye  and  the  stars; 
sliding  the  beads  upon  it,  till  they  hid  such  and  such  stars  from 
my  eye,  in  order  to  take  their  apparent  distances  from  one  ano- 
ther ;  and  then  laying  the  thread  down  on  a  paper,  I  marked  the 
stars  thereon  by  the  beads.11  "  My  master,11  he  adds,  "  at  first 
laughed  at  me ;  but  when  I  explained  my  meaning  to  him,  he  en- 
couraged  me  to  go  on ;  and,  that  I  might  make  fair  copies  in  the 
daytime  of  what  I  had  done  in  the  night,  he  often  worked  for  me 
himself.  I  shall  always  have  a  respect  for  the  memory  of  that 
man.11  Having  been  employed  by  his  master  to  carry  a  message 
to  Mr.  Gilchrist,  the  minister  of  Keith,  he  took  with  him  the  draw- 
ings he  had  been  making,  and  showed  them  to  that  gentleman. 
Mr.  Gilchrist  upon  this  put  a  map  into  his  hands,  and  having  sup- 


240  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

plied  him  with  compasses,  ruler,  pens,  ink,  and  paper,  desired  him 
to  take  it  home  with  him,  and  bring  back  a  copy  of  it.  "  For  this 
pleasant  employment,11  says  he,  "  my  master  gave  me  more  time 
than  I  could  reasonably  expect ;  and  often  took  the  threshing-flail 
out  of  my  hands,  and  worked  himself,  while  I  sat  by  him  in  the 
barn,  busy  with  my  compasses,  ruler,  and  pen.11  This  is  a  beau- 
tiful, we  may  well  say,  and  even  a  touching  picture — the  good 
man  so  generously  appreciating  the  worth  of  knowledge  and 
genius,  that,  although  the  master,  he  voluntarily  exchanges  situa- 
tions with  his  servant,  and  insists  upon  doing  the  work  that  must 
be  done,  himself,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  give  his  more  pre- 
cious talents  to  the  more  appropriate  vocation.  We  know  not 
that  there  is  on  record  an  act  of  homage  to  science  and  learning 
more  honorable  to  the  author. 

Having  finished  his  map,  Ferguson  carried  it  to  Mr.  Gilchrist's, 
and  there  he  met  Mr.  Grant  of  Achoynamey,  who  offered  to  take 
him  into  the  house,  and  make  his  butler  give  him  lessons.  "  I  told 
Squire  Grant,11  says  he,  "  that  I  should  rejoice  to  be  at  his  house, 
as  soon  as  the  time  was  expired  for  which  I  was  engaged  with  my 
present  master.  He  very  politely  offered  to  put  one  in  my  place, 
but  this  I  declined.11  When  the  period  in  question  arrived,  ac- 
cordingly, he  went  to  Mr.  Grant's,  being  now  in  his  twentieth 
year.  Here  he  found  both  a  good  friend  and  a  very  extraordinary 
man,  in  Cantley  the  butler,  who  had  first  fixed  his  attention  by  a 
sun-dial  which  he  happened  to  be  engaged  in  painting  on  the 
village  school-house,  as  Ferguson  was  passing  along  the  road  on 
his  second  visit  to  Mr.  Gilchrist.  Dialling,  however,  was  only 
one  of  the  many  accomplishments  of  this  learned  butler,  who,  Fer- 
guson assures  us,  was  profoundly  conversant  both  with  arithmetic 
and  mathematics,  played  on  every  known  musical  instrument  ex- 
cept the  harp,  understood  Latin,  French,  and  Greek,  and  could 
let  blood  and  prescribe  for  diseases.  These  multifarious  attain- 
ments he  owed,  we  are  told,  entirely  to  himself  and  to  nature ; 
on  which  account  Ferguson  designates  him  "  God  Almighty's 
scholar.11 

From  this  person  Ferguson  received  instructions  in  Decimal 
.Fractions  and  Algebra,  having  already  made  himself  master  of 
Vulgar  Arithmetic  by  the  assistance  of  books.  Just  as  he  was 
about,  however,  to  begin  Geometry,  Cantley  left  his  place  for 
another  in  the  establishment  of  the  Earl  of  Fife,  and  his  pupil 
thereupon  determined  to  return  home  to  his  father. 

Cantley,  on  parting  with  him,  had  made  him  a  present  of  a  copy 
of  Gordon's  Geographical  Grammar.  The  book  contains  a  de- 
scription of  an  artificial  globe,  which  is  not,  however,  illustrated 


JAMES   FERGUSON.  241 

by  any  figure.  Nevertheless,  "  from  this  description,11  says  Fer- 
guson, "  I  made  a  globe  in  three  weeks  at  my  father's,  having 
turned  the  ball  thereof  out  of  a  piece  of  wood  ;  which  ball  I  covered 
with  paper,  and  delineated  a  map  of  the  world  upon  it ;  made  the 
meridian  ring  and  horizon  of  wood,  covered  them  with  paper,  and 
graduated  them  ;  and  was  happy  to  find  that  by  my  globe  (which 
was  the  first  I  ever  saw)  I  could  solve  the  problems.11 

For  some  time  after  this,  he  was  very  unfortunate.  Finding 
that  it  would  not  do  to  remain  idle  at  home,  he  engaged  in  the  ser- 
vice of  a  miller  in  the  neighborhood,  who,  feeling  probably  that  he 
could  trust  to  the  honesty  and  capacity  of  his  servant,  soon  began 
to  spend  all  his  own  time  in  the  alehouse,  and  to  leave  poor  Fer- 
guson at  home,  not  only  with  every  thing  to  do,  but  with  very  fre- 
quently nothing  to  eat.  A  little  oatmeal,  mixed  with  cold  water, 
was  often,  he  tells  us,  all  he  was  allowed.  Yet  in  this  situation  he 
remained  a  year,  and  then  returned  to  his  father's,  very  much  the 
weaker  for  his  fasting.  His  next  master  was  a  Dr.  Young,  who 
having  induced  him  to  enter  his  service  by  a  promise  to  instruct 
him  in  medicine,  not  only  broke  his  engagement  as  to  this  point, 
but  used  him  in  other  respects  so  tyrannically,  that,  although  enga- 
ged for  half  a  year,  he  found  he  could  not  remain  beyond  the  first 
quarter,  at  the  expiration  of  which,  accordingly,  he  came  away  with- 
out receiving  any  wages,  having  "  wrought  the  last  fortnight,11  says 
he,  "  as  much  as  possible  with  one  hand  and  arm,  when  I  could  not 
lift  the  other  from  my  side.11  This  was  in  consequence  of  a  se- 
vere hurt  he  had  received,  which  the  doctor  was  too  busy  to  look 
to,  and  by  which  he  was  confined  to  his  bed  for  two  months  after 
his  return  home. 

Reduced  as  he  was,  however,  by  exhaustion  and  actual  pain,  he 
could  not  be  idle.  "  In  order,11  says  he,  "  to  amuse  myself  in  this 
low  state,  I  made  a  wooden  clock,  the  frame  of  which  was  also  of 
wood,  and  it  kept  time  pretty  well.  The  bell  on  which  the  ham- 
mer struck  the  hours  was  the  neck  of  a  broken  bottle.11  A  short 
time  after  this,  when  he  had  recovered  his  health,  he  gave  a  still 
more  extraordinary  proof  of  his  ingenuity,  and  the  fertility  of  his 
resources  for  mechanical  invention,  by  actually  constructing  a  time- 
piece  or  watch,  moved  by  a  spring.  But  we  must  allow  him  to 
give  the  history  of  this  matter  in  his  own  words. 

"  Having  then,11  he  says,  "  no  idea  how  any  time-piece  could  go 
but  by  weight  and  line,  I  wondered  how  a  watch  could  go  in  all 
positions  ;  and  was  sorry  that  I  had  never  thought  of  asking  Mr. 
Cantley,  who  could  very  easily  have  informed  me.  But  happening 
one  day  to  see  a  gentleman  ride  by  my  father's  house,  (which  was 
close  by  a  public  road,)  I  asked  him  what  o'clock  it  then  was  ?  HQ 


242  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

looked  at  his  watch  and  told  me.  As  he  did  that  with  so  much 
good -nature,  I  begged  of  him  to  show  me  the  inside  of  his  watch ; 
and  though  he  was  an  entire  stranger,  he  immediately  opened  the 
watch,  and  put  it  into  my  hands.  I  saw  the  spring  box,  with  part 
of  the  chain  round  it ;  and  a^ked  him  what  it  was  that  made  the 
box  turn  round  ?  He  told  me  that  it  was  turned  round  by  a  steel 
spring  within  it.  Having  then  never  seen  any  other  spring  than  that 
of  my  father's  gun-lock,  I  asked  how  a  spring  within  a  box  could 
turn  the  box  so  often  round  as  to  wind  all  the  chain  upon  it  1  He 
answered,  that  the  spring  was  long  and  thin ;  that  one  end  of  it 
was  fastened  to  the  axis  of  the  box,  and  the  other  end  to  the  inside 
of  the  box  ;  that  the  axis  was  fixed,  and  the  box  was  loose  upon  it. 
I  told  him  that  I  did  not  yet  thoroughly  understand  the  matter. 
*  Well,  my  lad,1  says  he,  '  take  a  long,  thin  piece  of  whalebone  ; 
hold  one  end  of  it  fast  between  your  finger  and  thumb,  and  wind 
it  round  your  finger;  it  will  then  endeavor  to  unwind  itself;  and 
if  you  fix  the  other  end  of  it  to  the  inside  of  a  small  hoop,  and 
leave  it  to  itself,  it  will  turn  the  hoop  round  and  round,  and  wind 
up  a  thread  tied  to  the  outside  of  the  hoop.  I  thanked  the  gentle- 
man, and  told  him  that  I  understood  the  thing  very  well.  I  then 
tried  to  make  a  watch  with  wooden  wheels,  and  made  the  spring 
of  whalebone  ;  but  found  that  I  could  not  make  the  wheel  go  when 
the  balance  was  put  on,  because  the  teeth  of  the  wheels  were  ra- 
ther too  weak  to  bear  the  force  of  a  spring  sufficient  to  move  the 
balance  ;  although  the  wheels  would  run  fast  enough  when  the  bal- 
ance was  taken  off.  I  enclosed  the  whole  in  a  wooden  case,  very 
little  bigger  than  a  breakfast  teacup  ;  but  a  clumsy  neighbor  one 
day  looking  at  my  watch,  happened  to  let  it  fall,  and  turning  hasti- 
ly about  to  pick  it  up,  set  his  foot  upon  it,  and  crushed  it  all  to 
pieces ;  which  so  provoked  my  father,  that  he  was  almost  ready 
to  beat  the  man,  and  discouraged  me  so  much  that  I  never  attempt- 
ed to  make  such  another  machine  again,  especially  as  I  was  tho- 
roughly convinced  that  I  could  never  make  one  that  would  be  of 
any  real  use." 

What  a  vivid  picture  is  this  of  an  ingenious  mind  thirsting  for 
knowledge  !  and  who  is  there,  too,  that  does  not  envy  the  pleasure 
that  must  have  been  felt  by  the  courteous  and  intelligent  stranger 
by  whom  the  young  mechanician  was  carried  over  his  first  great 
difficulty,  if  he  ever  chanced  to  learn  how  greatly  his  unknown 
questioner  had  profited  from  their  brief  interview  !  That  stranger 
might  probably  have  read  the  above  narrative,  as  given  to  the  world 
by  Ferguson,  after  the  talents  which  this  little  incident  probably 
contributed  to  develop,  had  raised  him  from  his  obscurity  to  a  distin- 
guished place  among  the  philosophers  of  his  age ;  and  if  he  did 


JAMES   FERGUSON.  243 

know  this,  he  must  have  felt  that  encouragement  in  well-doing  which 
a  benevolent  man  may  always  gather,  either  from  the  positive 
effects  of  acts  of  kindness  upon  others,  or  their  influence  upon  his 
own  heart.  Civility,  charity,  generosity,  may  sometimes  meet  an 
ill  return,  but  one  person  must  be  benefited  by  their  exercise  ;  the 
kind  heart  has  its  own  abundant  reward,  whatever  be  the  gratitude 
of  others.  The  case  of  Ferguson  shows  that  the  seed  does  not 
always  fall  on  stony  ground.  It  may  appear  somewhat  absurd 
to  dwell  upon  the  benefit  of  a  slight  civility  which  cost,  at  most, 
but  a  few  minutes  of  attention  ;  but  it  is  really  important  that  those 
who  are  easy  in  the  world — who  have  all  the  advantages  of  wealth 
and  knowledge  at  their  command — should  feel  of  how  much  value 
is  the  slightest  encouragement  and  assistance  to  those  who  are  toil- 
ing up  the  steep  of  emulation.  Too  often  "  the  scoff  of  pride"  is 
superadded  to  the  "  bar  of  poverty  ;"  and  thus  it  is  that  many  a  one 
of  the  best  talents  and  the  most  generous  feelings 

*'  Has  sunk  into  the  grave  unpitiecl  and  unknown," 

because  the  wealthy  and  powerful  have  never  understood  the  value 
of  a  helping  hand  to  him  who  is  struggling  with  fortune. 

Ferguson's  attention  having  been  thus  turned  to  the  mechanism 
of  time.pieces,  he  now  began  to  do  a  little  business  in  the  neigh- 
borhood as  a  cleaner  of  clocks,  by  which  he  made  some  money. 
He  was  invited  also  to  take  up  his  residence  in  the  house  of  Sir 
James  Dunbar,  of  Burn,  to  whom  he  seems  to  have  made  himself 
useful  by  various  little  services  for  which  his  ingenuity  fitted  him. 
Among  other  things  he  converted  two  round  stones  upon  the  gate- 
way, into  a  pair  of  stationary  globes,  by  painting  a  map  of  the 
earth  upon  one,  and  a  map  of  the  heavens  upon  the  other.  "  The 
poles  of  the  painted  globes,"  he  informs  us,  "  stood  towards  the 
poles  of  the  heavens  ;  on  each  the  twenty-four  hours  were  placed 
around  the  equinoctial,  so  as  to  show  the  time  of  the  day  when  the 
sun  shone  out,  by  the  boundary  where  the  half  of  the  globe  at  any 
time  enlightened  by  the  sun  was  parted  from  the  other  half  in  the 
shade ;  the  enlightened  parts  of  the  terrestrial  globe  answering  to 
the  like  enlightened  parts  of  the  earth  at  all  times.  So  that,'  when- 
ever the  sun  shone  on  the  globe,  one  might  see  to  what  places  the 
sun  was  then  rising,  to  what  places  it  was  setting,  and  all  the  places 
where  it  was  then  day  or  night  throughout  the  earth."  Having 
been  introduced  to  Sir  James's  sister,  Lady  Dipple,  he  was  induced 
at  her  suggestion  to  attempt  the  drawing  of  patterns  for  ladies' 
dresses,  in  which  he  soon  became  quite  an  adept.  "  On  this,"  says 
he,  "  I  was  sent  for  by  other  ladies  in  the  country,  and  began  to 
think  myself  growing  very  rich  by  the  money  I  got  by  such  draw- 


244  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

ings ;  out  of  which  I  had  the  pleasure  of  occasionally  supplying 
the  wants  of  my  poor  father."  He  still  continued,  however,  his 
astronomical  studies,  making  observations  on  the  stars,  as  usual, 
with  his  beaded  threads,  and  delineating  on  paper  the  apparent 
paths  of  the  planets  as  thus  ascertained.  So  excited  would  he  be- 
come  while  thus  engaged,  that  he  often  conceived,  he  says,  that  he 
saw  the  ecliptic  lying  like  a  broad  highway  across  the  firmament, 
and  the  planets  making  their  way  in  "  paths  like  the  narrow  ruts 
made  by  cart  wheels,  sometimes  on  one  side  of  a  plane  road,  and 
sometimes  on  the  other,  crossing  the  road  at  small  angles,  but  never 
going  far  from  either  side  of  it." 

He  now  began  also  to  copy  pictures  and  prints  with  pen  and 
ink  ;  and  having  gone  to  reside  with  Mr.  Baird,  of  Auchmeddan, 
Lady  Dipple's  son-in-law,  where  he  enjoyed  access  to  a  tolerably 
well -stocked  library,  he  made  his  first  attempt  at  taking  likenesses 
from  the  life,  in  a  portrait  which  he  drew  of  that  gentleman  ; 
"  and  I  found,"  says  he,  "  it  was  much  easier  to  draw  from  the 
life  than  from  any  picture  whatever,  as  nature  was  more  striking 
than  any  imitation  of  it."  His  success  in  this  new  profession 
struck  his  country  patrons  as  so  remarkable,  that  they  determined 
upon  carrying  him  to  Edinburgh,  in  order  that  he  might  be  regu- 
larly instructed  in  those  parts  of  the  art  of  which  he  was  still 
ignorant,  lady  Dipple  liberally  agreeing  to  allow  him  to  live  in  her 
house  for  two  years.  But  when  he  came  to  that  city  he  could  find 
no  painter  who  would  consent  to  take  him  as  an  apprentice  without 
a  premium — a  circumstance  which  his  sanguine  friends  had  not 
counted  upon.  In  this  extremity,  not  knowing  what  to  do,  he  was 
advised,  by  the  Reverend  Dr.  Keith,  to  trust  to  his  own  genius, 
and  to  commence  the  practice  of  his  intended  profession  without 
waiting  for  any  other  instruction  than  what  he  had  already  received 
from  nature.  It  was  certainly  a  bold  counsel ;  but  Ferguson, 
having  in  truth  no  other  resource,  followed  it,  and  succeeded  be- 
yond his  most  sanguine  expectations,  in  a  very  short  time  making 
so  much  money  as  to  enable  him  not  only  to  defray  his  own  ex- 
penses, but  to  gratify  his  kind  heart  by  contributing  largely  to  the 
support  of  his  now  aged  parents.  He  followed  this  business  for 
twenty-six  years. 

Yet  he  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  given  his  heart  to  painting, 
and  notwithstanding  his  success,  he  even  made  various  attempts  to 
escape  from  it  as  a  profession  altogether.  When  he  had  been 
only  about  two  years  in  Edinburgh,  he  was  seized  with  so  violent 
a  passion  for  the  study,  or  at  least  the  practice,  of  medicine,  that 
he  actually  returned  to  his  father's,  carrying  with  him  a  quantity 
of  pills,  plasters;  and  other  preparations,  with  the  intention  of  setting 


JAMES  FERGUSON.  245 

up  as  the  ^Esculapius  of  the  village.  But  it  would  not  do.  Of 
those  who  took  his  medicines  very  few  paid  him  for  them,  and 
still  fewer,  he  acknowledges,  were  benefited  by  them.  So  he  ap- 
plied again  to  his  pencil ;  but,  instead  of  returning  immediately  to 
Edinburgh,  fixed  his  residence  for  a  few  months  at  Inverness. 
Here  he  employed  his  leisure  in  pursuing  his  old  and  favorite 
study  of  astronomy ;  and  having  discovered  by  himself  the  cause 
of  eclipses,  drew  up  a  scheme  for  showing  the  motions  and  places 
of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  ecliptic,  on  each  day  of  the  year,  per- 
petually. This  he  transmitted  to  the  celebrated  Maclaurin,  who 
found  it  to  be  very  nearly  correct,  and  was  so  much  pleased  with 
it,  that  he  had  it  engraved.  It  sold  very  well,  and  Ferguson  was 
induced  once  more  to  return  to  Edinburgh.  He  had  now  a  zealous 
patron  in  Maclaurin,  and  one  extremely  disposed  to  assist  him  in 
his  philosophical  studies.  One  day  Ferguson  having  asked  the 
Professor  to  show  him  his  Orrery,  the  latter  immediately  complied 
with  his  request,  in  so  far  as  to  exhibit  to  him  the  outward  move- 
ments of  the  machine,  but  would  not  venture  to  open  it  in  order 
to  get  at  the  wheelwork,  which  he  had  never  himself  inspected, 
being  afraid  that  he  should  not  be  able  to  put  it  to  rights  again  if 
he  should  chance  to  displace  any  part  of  it.  Ferguson,  however, 
had  seen  enough  to  set  his  ingenious  and  contriving  mind  to  work ; 
and  in  a  short  time  he  succeeded  in  finishing  an  Orrery  of  his  own, 
and  had  the  honour  of  reading  a  lecture  on  it  to  Maclaurin's  pupils. 
He  some  time  after  made  another  of  ivory,  (his  first  had  been  of 
wood  ;)  and  in  the  course  of  his  life  he  constructed,  he  tells  us,  six 
more,  all  unlike  each  other. 

His  mind  was  now  becoming  every  day  more  attached  to  phi- 
losophical pursuits  ;  and  quite  tired,  as  he  says,  of  drawing  pic- 
tures, in  which  he  never  strove  to  excel,  he  resolved  to  go  to 
London,  in  the  hope  of  finding  employment  as  a  teacher  of  me- 
chanics and  astronomy.  Having  written  out  a  proof  of  a  new 
astronomical  truth  which  had  occured  to  him,  namely,  that  the 
moon  must  move  always  in  a  path  concave  to  the  sun,  he  showed 
his  proposition  and  its  demonstration  to  Mr.  Folks,  the  President 
of  the  Royal  Society,  who  thereupon  took  him  the  same  evening 
to  the  meeting  of  that  learned  body.  This  had  the  effect  of  bring, 
ing  him  immediately  into  notice.  He  soon  after  published  his  first 
work,  "  A  Dissertation  on  the  Phenomena  of  the  Harvest  Moon,1' 
with  the  description  of  a  new  Orrery,  having  only  four  wheels. 
Of  this  work  he  says,  with  his  characteristic  modesty,  "  Having 
never  had  a  grammatical  education,  nor  time  to  study  the  rules  of 
just  composition,  I  acknowledge  that  I  was  afraid  to  put  it  to  the 
press ;  and  for  the  same  cause,  I  ought  to  have  the  same  fears 


246  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

still."  It  was,  however,  well  received  by  the  public  ;  and  its  in- 
genious author  afterwards  followed  it  up  by  various  other  produc- 
tions, most  of  which  became  very  popular.  In  1748  he  began  to 
give  public  lectures  on  his  favorite  subjects,  which  were  numerously 
and  fashionably  attended,  his  late  Majesty  George  III.,  who  wras 
then  a  boy,  being  occasionally  among  his  auditors.  He  had  till 
now  continued  to  work  at  his  old  profession  of  a  portrait  painter ; 
but  about  this  time  he  at  last  bade  it  a  final  farewell,  having  secured 
another,  and,  in  his  estimation,  a  much  more  agreeable  means  of 
providing  a  subsistence  for  himself  and  his  family.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  George  III.,  a  pension  of  fifty  pounds  per  annum  was 
bestowed  upon  him  from  the  privy  purse.  In  1763  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  the  usual' fees  being  remitted,  as 
had  been  done  in  the  cases  of  Newton  and  Thomas  Simpson.  He 
died  in  1776,  having  for  many  years  enjoyed  a  distinguished  repu- 
tation both  at  home  and  abroad  ;  for  several  of  his  works  had  been 
translated  into  foreign  languages,  and  were  admired  throughout 
Europe  for  the  simplicity  and  ingenuity  of  their  elucidations.  Of 
his  dialogues  on  Astronomy,  Madame  de  Genlis  says,  "  This  book 
is  written  with  so  much  clearness,  that  a  child  of  ten  years  old 
may  understand  it  perfectly  from  one  end  to  the  other.11 

The  faculties  of  distinct  apprehension  and  luminous  exposition 
belonged,  indeed,  to  Ferguson  in  a  pre-eminent  degree.  He 
doubtless  owed  his  superiority  here  in  a  great  measure  to  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  he  had  been  obliged  to  acquire  his 
knowledge.  Nothing  that  he  had  learned  had  been  set  him  as  a 
task.  He  had  applied  himself  to  whatever  subject  of  study  engaged 
his  attention,  simply  from  the  desire  and  with  the  view  of  under- 
standing it.  All  that  he  knew,  therefore,  he  knew  thoroughly,  and 
not  by  rote  merely,  as  many  things  are  learned  by  those  who  have 
no  higher  object  than  to  master  the  task  of  the  day.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  has  often  happened  in  the  case  of  self-educated  men,  the 
want  of  a  regular  director  of  his  studies  had  left  him  ignorant  of 
many  departments  of  knowledge  in  which,  had  he  been  introduced 
to  them,  he  was  probably  admirably  adapted  to  distinguish  himself, 
and  from  which  he  might  have  drawn,  'at  all  events,  the  most  val- 
uable assistance  in  the  prosecution  of  his  favorite  investigations. 
Thus,  familiar  as  he  was  with  the  phenomena  of  astronomy  and 
the  practical  parts  of  mechanics,  and  admirable  as  was  his  inge- 
nuity in  mechanical  invention,  he  knew  nothing,  or  next  to  nothing, 
either  of  abstract  mathematics  or  of  the  higher  parts  of  algebra. 
He  remained,  in  this  way,  to  the  end  of  his  life,  rather  a  clever 
empiric,  to  use  the  term  in  its  original  and  more  honorable  signi- 
fication, as  meaning  a  practical  and  experimenting  philosopher, 


SAMUEL  CROMPTON. 


SAMUEL  CROMPTON.  247 

than  a  man  of  science.  This  was  more  peculiarly  the  sort  of  peril 
to  which  self-educated  mei»were  exposed  in  Ferguson's  day,  when 
books  of  any  kind  were  comparatively  scarce,  and  good  elementary 
works  scarcely  existed  on  any  subject.  Much  has  since  been  done, 
and  is  now  doing,  to  supply  that  great  desideratum ;  and  even 
already,  in  many  departments,  the  man  who  can  merely  read  is 
provided  with  the  means  of  instructing  himself  both  at  little  ex- 
pense, and  with  a  facility  and  completeness  such  as  a  century,  or 
even  half  a  century  ago,  were  altogether  out  of  the  question.  Not 
a  little,  however,  still  remains  to  be  accomplished  before  the  good 
work  can  be  considered  as  finished  ;  nor,  indeed,  is  it  the  nature  of 
it  ever  to  be  finished,  seeing  that,  even  if  we  should  have  perfectly 
arranged  and  systematized  all  our  present  knowledge,  time  must 
be  constantly  adding  to  our  possessions  here,  and  opening  new 
worlds  for  philosophy  to  explore  and  conquer. 


SAMUEL  CROMPTON. 

SAMUEL  CROMPTON  was  born  on  the  3d  of  December,  1753,  at 
Firwood,  in  Lancashire,  where  his  father  held  a  farm  of  small 
extent ;  and  according  to  the  custom  of  those  days,  employed  a 
portion  of  his  time  in  carding,  spinning,  and  weaving.  Hall-in-the- 
wood,  a  picturesque  cottage  near  Bolton,  became  the  residence  of 
the  family  during  the  son's  infancy,  and  the  memorable  scenes  of 
his  juvenile  inventions.  His  father  died  when  he  was  very  young. 
The  care  of  his  education  devolved  on  his  mother,  a  pious  woman, 
who  lived  in  a  retired  manner,  and  imparted  her  own  sincere  and 
contemplative  turn  of  mind  to  her  son.  In  all  his  dealings  through 
life,  Samuel  was  strictly  honest,  patient,  and  humane. 

When  about  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  learned  to  spin  upon  a 
jenny  of  Hargrave's  make,  and  occasionally  wove  what  he  had 
spun.  Being  dissatisfied  with  the  quality  of  his  yarn,  he  began  to 
consider  how  it  might  be  improved,  and  was  thus  naturally  led  to 
the  construction  of  his  novel  spinning-machine.  He  commenced 
this  task  when  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  devoted  five  years  to 
its  execution.  He  possessed  only  such  simple  tools  as  his  little 
earnings  at  the  jenny  and  the  loom  enabled  him  to  procure,  and 
proceeded  but  slowly  with  the  construction  of  his  mule,  but  still  in 
a  progressive  manner  highly  creditable  to  his  dexterity  and  per- 
severance. 


250  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

He  often  said,  what  annoyed  him  most  was  that  he  was  not 
allowed  to  employ  his  little  invention  by  himself  in  his  garret ;  for, 
as  he  got  a  better  price  for  his  yarn  than  his  neighbors,  he  was 
naturally  supposed  to  have  mounted  some  superior  mechanism,  and 
hence  became  an  object  of  the  prying  curiosity  of  the  country  peo- 
ple for  miles  around  ;  many  of  whom  climbed  up  at  the  windows 
to  see  him  at  his  work.  He  erected  a  screen  in  order  to  obstruct 
their  view ; — but  he  continued  to  be  so  incommoded  by  crowds  of 
visitors,  that  he  resolved  at  last  to  get  rid  of  the  vexatious  mystery 
by  disclosing  the  whole  contrivance  before  a  number  of  gentle- 
men, who  chose  to  subscribe  a  guinea  apiece  for  the  inspection. 
In  this  way  he  collected  about  £50,  and  hence  was  enabled  to 
construct  another  and  similar  machine  upon  a  better  and  larger 
plan.  The  first  contained  no  more  than  from  thirty  to  forty 
spindles. 

The  art  of  spinning  with  Crompton's  machine,  soon  became 
widely  known  among  work  people  of  all  descriptions,  from  the 
higher  wages  which  it  procured  above  other  artisans,  such  as 
shoe-makers,  joiners,  hatters,  &c ;  many  of  whom  were  thereby 
induced  to  change  their  employment  and  become  mule  spinners. 
Hence  it  happened  among  this  motley  gang,  that  if  any  thing  went 
amiss  with  their  machine,  each  of  them  endeavored  to  supply  the 
deficiency  with  some  expedient  borrowed  from  his  former  trade  ; — 
the  smith  introduced  a  piece  of  iron, — the  shoemaker  had  recourse 
to  leather, — the  hatter  to  felt,  &c.  &c.  whereby  valuable  sugges- 
tions were  obtained. 

When  the  mule  first  became  known  it  was  called  the  Hall-in-the- 
wood.wheel,  from  the  place  where  it  was  invented,  and  shortly  after, 
the  Muslin-wheel,  from  its  making  yarn  sufficiently  fine  for  the 
manufacture  of  muslin ; — but  it  ultimately  received  the  name  of 
mule,  from  combining  the  principles  of  the  jenny  invented  by  Har- 
graves  and  the  water  frame  of  Arkwright : 

"The  force  of  genius  could  no  farther  go, 
To  make  a  third  he  joined  the  other  two" 

Being  of  a  retiring  and  unambitious  disposition,  and  having  made 
no  effort  to  secure  by  a  patent  the  exclusive  enjoyment  of  his  in- 
vention,  it  becam6  public  property,  and  was  turned  to  advantage 
by  more  pushing  manufacturers. 

About  the  year  1802,  Mr.  Kennedy  and  Mr.  Lee  of  Manchester 
set  on  foot  a  subscription  for  him,  whereby  they  obtained  a  suffi- 
cient capital  for  the  increase  of  his  small  manufactory.  As  a 
weaver  also  he  displayed  great  ingenuity,  and  erected  several 
looms,  for  the  fancy  work  of  that  town.  Being  fond  of  music,  he 
built  himself  an  organ,  with  which  he  entertained  his  leisure  hours 


WILLIAM  EDWARDS.  253 

in  his  cottage.  Though  his  means  were  slender,  he  was  such  a 
master  of  domestic  economy,  as  to  be  always  in  easy  circum- 
stances. In  1812,  he  made  a  survey  of  all  the  cotton  districts  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  obtained  an  estimate  of  the 
number  of  spindles  at  work  upon  his  mule  principle — then  amount- 
ing to  between  four  and  five  millions,  and  in  1829  to  about  seven. 
On  his  return,  he  laid  the  result  of  his  inquiries  before  his  generous 
friends,  Messrs.  Kennedy  and  Lee,  with  a  suggestion,  that  parlia- 
ment might  possibly  grant  him  some  recompense  for  the  national 
advantages  derived  from  his  invention.  A  memorial  was  accord- 
ingly drawn  up,  in  furtherance  of  which,  some  of  the  most  promi- 
nent manufacturers  in  the  kingdom,  to  whom  his  merits  were  made 
known,  took  a  lively  interest.  He  went  himself  to  London  with 
the  memorial,  and  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  a  bill  through  parlia- 
ment, for  a  grant  to  him  of  five  thousand  pounds. 

Mr.  Crompton  was  now  anxious  to  place  his  sons  in  business, 
and  fixed  upon  that  of  bleaching ;  but  the  unfavorable  state  of  the 
times, — the  inexperience  and  mismanagement  of  his  sons, — a  bad 
situation,  and  a  misunderstanding  with  his  landlord,  which  occa- 
sioned a  tedious  lawsuit,  conspired  in  a  short  time  to  put  an  end  to 
this  establishment.  His  sons  then  dispersed,  and  he  and  his 
daughter  were  reduced  to  poverty.  His  friends  had  recourse  to  a 
second  subscription,  to  purchase  a  life  annuity  for  him,  which  pro- 
duced £63,  per  annum.  The  amount  raised  for  this  purpose  was 
collected  in  small  sums,  from  one  to  ten  pounds,  some  of  which 
were  contributed  by  the  Swiss  and  French  spinners,  who  acknow- 
ledged his  merits,  and  pitied  his  misfortunes.  At-  the  same  time 
his  portrait  was  engraved  for  his  benefit,  and  a  few  impressions 
were  disposed  of; — he  enjoyed  this  small  annuity  only  two  years. 
He  died  January  26,  1827,  leaving  his  daughter,  his  affectionate 
housekeeper,  in  poverty, 

Mr.  Crompton  was  fortunate  in  one  respect,  namely,  in  having 
met  with  a  friend  like  Mr,  Kennedy,  who  had  the  heart  to  befriend 
merit  and  the  talent  to  commemorate  it. 


WILLIAM   EDWARDS. 

WILLIAM  EDWARDS  was  born  in  1719,  in  the  parish  of  Eglwy. 
silan,  in  Glamorganshire.  He  lost  his  father,  who  was  a  farmer, 
when  he  was  only  two  years  old ;  but  his  mother  continued  to 

18 


254  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

hold  the  farm,  and  was  in  this  manner  enabled  to  bring  up  her 
family,  consisting  of  two  other  sons  and  a  daughter,  beside  Wil- 
liam, who  was  the  youngest.  Her  other  sons,  indeed,  were  soon 
old  enough  to  take  the  chief  part  of  her  charge  off  her  hands. 
William,  in  the  mean  time,  was  taught,  as  he  grew  up,  to  read 
and  write  Welsh  ;  and  this  was  all  the  education  he  seems  to  have 
received.  When  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  first  began  to  em- 
ploy  himself  in  repairing  the  stone  fences  on  the  farm  ;  and  in 
this  humble  species  of  masonry  he  soon  acquired  uncommon  ex- 
pertness.  The  excellent  work  he  made,  and  the  despatch  with 
which  he  got  through  it,  at  last  attracted  the  notice  of  the  neigh, 
boring  farmers ;  and  they  advised  his  brothers  to  keep  him  at 
this  business,  and  to  let  him  employ  his  skill,  when  wanted,  on 
other  farms  as  well  as  their  own.  After  this  he  was  for  some 
time  constantly  engaged  ;  and  he  regularly  added  his  earnings  to 
the  common  stock  of  the  family. 

Hitherto  the  only  sort  of  building  he  had  practised,  or  indeed 
had  seen  practised,  was  merely  with  stones  without  mortar.  But 
at  length  it  happened  that  some  masons  came  to  the  parish  to 
erect  a  shed  for  shoeing  horses  near  a  smiths  shop.  By  William 
the  operation  of  these  architects  were  contemplated  with  the  live- 
liest interest,  and  he  used  to  stand  by  them  for  hours  while  they 
were  at  work,  taking  note  of  every  movement  they  made.  A  cir- 
cumstance that  at  once  struck  him  was,  that  they  used  a  different 
description  of  hammer  from  what  he  had  been  accustomed  to  em- 
ploy ;  and,  perceiving  its  superiority,  he  immediately  got  one  of 
the  same  kind  made  for  himself.  With  this  he  found  he  could 
build  his  walls  both  a  good  deal  faster  and  more  neatly  than  he 
had  been  wont  to  do.  But  it  was  not  long  after  he  had,  for  the 
first  time  in  his  life,  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  how  houses  were 
erected,  that  he  undertook  to  build  one  himself.  It  was  a  work- 
shop for  a  neighbor ;  and  he  performed  his  task  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  obtained  him  great  applause.  Very  soon  after  this  he  was 
employed  to  erect  a  mill,  by  which  he  still  farther  increased  his 
reputation  as  an  able  and  ingenious  workman.  Mr.  Malkin,  to 
whose  work  on  the  Scenery,  &c.,  of  South  Wales,  we  are  indebted 
for  these  particulars  of  Ed  wards 's  early  life,  as  well  as  for  the 
materials  of  the  sequel  of  our  sketch,  says,  that  it  was  while  build- 
ing this  mill  that  the  self-taught  architect  became  acquainted  with 
the  principle  of  the  arch. 

After  this  achievement,  Edwards  was  accounted  the  best  work- 
man in  that  part  of  the  country ;  and  being  highly  esteemed  for 
his  integrity  and  fidelity  to  his  engagements,  as  well  as  for  his 
skill,  he  had  as  much  employment  in  his  line  of  a  common  builder, 


WILLIAM    EDWARDS.  355 

as  he  could  undertake.  In  his  twenty-seventh  year,  however,  he 
was  induced  to  engage  in  an  enterprise  of  a  much  more  difficult 
and  important  character  than  any  thing  he  had  hitherto  attempted. 
Through  his  native  parish,  in  which  he  still  continued  to  reside, 
flowed  the  river  called  the  Taff,  which,  following  a  southward 
course,  flows  at  last  into  the  estuary  of  the  Severn.  It  was  pro- 
posed to  throw  a  bridge  over  this  river  at  a  particular  spot  in  the 
parish  of  Eglwysilan,  where  it  crossed  the  line  of  an  intended  road ; 
but  to  this  design  difficulties  of  a  somewhat  formidable  nature  pre- 
sented themselves,  owing  both  to  the  great  breadth  of  the  water, 
and  the  frequent  swellings  to  which  it  was  subject.  Mountains 
covered  with  wood  rose  to  a  considerable  height  from  both  its 
banks ;  which  first  attracted  and  detained  every  approaching 
cloud,  and  then  sent  down  its  collected  discharge  in  torrents  into 
the  river.  Edwards,  however,  undertook  the  task  of  constructing 
the  proposed  bridge,  though  it  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  in 
which  he  ever  had  engaged.  Accordingly,  in  the  year  1746,  he 
set  to  work ;  and  in  due  time  completed  a  very  light  and  elegant 
bridge  of  three  arches,  which,  notwithstanding  that  it  was  the 
work  of  both  an  entirely  self-taught  and  an  equally  untravelled 
artist,  was  acknowledged  to  be  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind 
in  Wales.  So  far  his  success  had  been  as  perfect  as  could  have 
been  desired.  But  his  undertaking  was  far  from  being  yet  finished. 
He  had,  both  through  himself  and  his  friends,  given  security  that 
the  work  should  stand  for  seven  years  ;  and  for  the  first  two  years 
and  a  half  of  this  term  all  went  on  well.  There  then  occurred  a 
flood  of  extraordinary  magnitude ;  not  only  the  torrents  came 
down  from  the  mountains  in  their  accustomed  channels,  but  they 
brought  along  with  them  trees  of  the  largest  size,  which  they  had 
torn  up  by  the  roots  ;  and  these,  detained  as  they  floated  along  by 
the  middle  piers  of  the  new  bridge,  formed  a  dam  there,  the  waters 
accumulated  behind  which  at  length  burst  from  their  confinement 
and  swept  away  the  whole  structure.  This  was  no  light  misfor- 
tune in  every  way  to  poor  Edwards  ;  but  he  did  not  suffer  himself 
to  be  disheartened  by  it,  and  immediately  proceeded,  as  his  con- 
tract bound  him  to  do,  to  the  erection  of  another  bridge,  in  the 
room  of  the  one  that  had  been  destroyed.  He  now  determined, 
however,  to  adopt  a  very  magnificent  idea — to  span  the  whole 
width  of  the  river,  namely,  by  a  single  arch  of  the  unexampled 
magnitude  of  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  from  pier  to  pier.  He 
finished  the  erection  of  this  stupendous  arch  in  1751,  and  had  only 
to  add  the  parapets,  when  he  was  doomed  once  more  to  behold 
his  bridge  sink  into  the  water  over  which  he  had  raised  it,  the 
extraordinary  weight  of  the  masonry  having  forced  up  the  key- 


256  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

stones,  and,  of  course,  at  once  deprived  the  arch  of  what  sustained 
its  equipoise.  Heavy  as  was  this  second  disappointment  to  the 
hopes  of  the  young  architect,  it  did  not  shake  his  courage  any 
more  than  the  former  had  done.  The  reconstruction  of  his  bridge 
for  the  third  time  was  immediately  begun  with  unabated  spirit  and 
confidence.  Still  determined  to  adhere  to  his  last  plan  of  a  single 
arch,  he  had  now  thought  of  an  ingenious  contrivance  for  diminish. 
ing  the  enormous  weight  which  had  formerly  forced  the  keystone 
out  of  its  place.  In  each  of  the  large  masses  of  masonry  called 
the  haunches  of  the  bridge,  being  the  parts  immediately  above  the 
two  extremities  of  the  arch,  he  opened  three  cylindrical  holes, 
which  not  only  relieved  the  central  part  of  the  structure  from  all 
over-pressure,  but  greatly  improved  its  general  appearance  in 
point  of  lightness  and  elegance.  The  bridge,  with  this  improve- 
ment, was  finished  in  1755,  having  occupied  the  architect  about 
nine  years  in  all ;  and  it  has  stood  ever  since. 

This  bridge  over  the  Taff — commonly  called  the  New  Bridge, 
and  by  the  Welsh  Pont  y  Pridd, — was,  at  the  time  of  its  erection, 
the  largest  stone  arch  known  to  exist  in  the  world.  Before  its 
erection,  the  Rialto  at  Venice,  the  span  of  which  was  only  ninety- 
eight  feet,  was  entitled,  as  Mr.  Malkin  remarks,  to  this  distinction 
among  bridges ;  unless,  indeed,  we  are  to  include  the  famous 
aqueduct-bridge  at  Alcantara,  near  Lisbon,  consisting  in  all  of 
thirty-five  arches,  the  eighth  of  which  is  rather  more  than  a  hun- 
dred and  eight  feet  in  width,  and  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  in 
height.  The  bridge  at  Alcantara  was  finished  in  1732.  Since 
the  erection  of  the  bridge  over  the  Taff,  several  other  stone  arches 
of  extraordinary  dimensions  have  been  built  both  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  France  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  five  composing  the 
splendid  Pont  de  Neuilly  over  the  Seine,  near  Paris,  the  span  of 
each  of  which  is  a  hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet — the  central  arch 
of  the  bridge  over  the  same  river  at  Mantes,  which  is  of  the  same 
dimensions — the  Island  Bridge,  as  it  is  called,  over  the  Liffey,  near 
Dublin,  which  is  a  single  arch  of  a  hundred  and  six  feet  in  width — 
the  bridge  over  the  Tees,  at  Winston,  in  Yorkshire,  which  is  also 
a  single  arch  of  a  hundred  and  eight  feet  nine  inches  wide,  and 
which  was  built  in  1762  by  John  Johnson,  a  common  mason,  at  a 
cost  of  only  five  hundred  pounds — and  the  nine  elliptical  arches, 
each  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet  span,  forming  the  magnificent 
Waterloo  bridge,  over  the  Thames  at  London.  But  no  one  of 
these  great  works  rivals  in  respect  of  dimensions  the  arch  con- 
structed by  Edwards.  The  bridge  over  the  Taff,  we  may  add, 
rises  to  the  height  of  thirty-five  feet  above  the  water,  and  is  the 
segment  of  a  circle  of  a  hundred  and  seventy  feet  in  diameter. 


WILLIAM   EDWARDS.  257 

Buttressed  as  it  is  at  each  extremity  by  lofty  mountains,  while  the 
water  flows  in  full  tide  beneath  it,  its  aspect,  as  it  is  seen  rising 
into  the  air,  may  well  be  conceived  to  be  particularly  striking  and 
grand. 

This  bridge,  which  is  looked  upon  as  a  wonder  to  this  day, 
spread  the  fame  of  Edwards  over  all  the  country.  He  afterwards 
built  many  other  bridges  in  South  Wales,  several  of  which  con- 
sisted  also  of  single  arches  of  considerable  width,  although  in  no 
case  approaching  to  that  of  the  arch  over  the  Taff.  One  which 
he  erected  over  the  Tawy,  near  Swansea,  had  a  span  of  eighty 
feet — another  at  Llandovery,  in  Carmarthenshire,  was  eighty-four 
feet  wide — and  a  third,  Wychbree  bridge,  over  the  Tawy,  was  of 
the  width  of  ninety-five  feet.  All  the  bridges  which  Edwards  built 
after  his  first  attempt  have  their  arches  formed  of  segments  of 
much  larger  circles  than  he  ventured  to  try  in  that  case  ;  and  the 
roads  over  them  are  consequently  much  flatter, — a  convenience 
which  amply  compensates  for  their  inferiority  in  point  of  imposing 
appearance.  He  found  his  way  to  this  improvement  entirely  by 
his  own  experience  and  sagacity ;  as  indeed  he  may  be  said  to 
have  done  to  all  the  knowledge  he  possessed  in  his  art.  Even  his 
principles  of  common  masonry,  he  used  himself  to  declare,  he  had 
learned  chiefly  from  his  studies  among  the  ruins  of  an  old  Gothic 
castle  in  his  native  parish.  In  bridge  building,  the  three  objects 
which  he  always  strove  to  attain  in  the  highest  possible  degree 
were,  first,  durability  ,*  secondly,  freedom  for  the  passage  of  the 
water  under  the  bridge  ;  and  lastly,  ease  of  traffic  over  it. 

In  commencing  architect,  Edwards  did  not  abandon  the  business 
of  his  forefathers.  He  was  likewise  a  farmer  to  the  end  of  his 
life.  Nay,  such  was  his  unwearied  activity,  that,  not  satisfied  with 
his  week-day  labors  in  these  two  capacities,  he  also  officiated  on 
Sundays  as  pastor  to  an  Independent  congregation,  having  been 
regularly  ordained  to  that  office  when  he  was  about  thirty  years 
of  age,  and  holding  it  till  his  death.  He  accepted  the  usual 
salary  from  his  congregation,  considering  it  right  that  they  should 
support  their  minister ;  but,  instead  of  putting  the  money  into  his 
own  pocket,  he  returned  it  all,  and  often  much  more,  in  charity  to 
the  poor.  He  always  preached  in  Welsh,  although  early  in  life  he 
had  also  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  English  language,  hav- 
ing embraced  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  it  under  the  tuition  of 
a  blind  old  schoolmaster  in  whose  house  he  once  lodged  for  a  short 
time  while  doing  some  work  at  the  county  town  of  Cardiff.  He  is 
said  to  have  shown  all  his  characteristic  assiduity  of  application  in 
this  effort,  and  to  have  made  a  correspondingly  rapid  progress. 

This  ingenious  and  worthy  man  died  in  1789,  in  the  seventieth 
18* 


258  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

year  of  his  age,  leaving  a  family  of  six  children,  of  whom  his 
eldest  son  David  became  also  an  eminent  architect  and  bridge- 
builder,  although  he  had  had  no  other  instruction  in  his  profession 
than  what  his  lather  had  given  him. 


RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT. 

WE  now  propose  to  give,  in  the  memoir  of  the  celebrated  Rich- 
ard  Arkwright,  some  account  of  an  individual,  whose  rise  from  a 
very  humble  origin  to  affluence  and  distinction  was  the  result  of 
his  persevering  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  machinery 
employed  in  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  manufactures, 
and  whose  name  is  intimately  connected  with  the  recent  history  of 
the  commercial  greatness  of  his  native  country.  This  illustrious 
individual,  persecuted  and  calumniated  as  nearly  all  the  signal  ben- 
efactors of  corrupt  humanity  have  ever  been,  was  raised  up  by 
providence  from  an  obscure  rank  in  life  to  vindicate  the  natural 
equality  of  man. 

Arkwright  was  born  on  the  23d  of  December,  1732,  at  Pres- 
ton, in  Lancashire.  His  parents  were  very  poor,  and  he  was  the 
youngest  of  a  family  of  thirteen  children ;  so  that  we  may  suppose 
the  school  education  he  received,  if  he  ever  was  at  school  at  all, 
was  extremely  limited.  Indeed,  but  little  learning  would  probably 
be  deemed  necessary  for  the  profession  to  which  he  was  bred, — • 
that  of  a  barber.  This  business  he  continued  to  follow  till  he  was 
nearly  thirty  years  of  age ;  and  this  first  period  of  his  history  is 
of  course  obscure  enough.  About  the  year  1760,  however,  or  soon 
after,  he  gave  up  shaving,  and  commenced  business  as  an  itinerant 
dealer  in  hair,  collecting  the  commodity  by  travelling  up  and  down 
the  country,  and  then,  after  he  had  dressed  it,  selling  it  again  to 
the  wig-makers,  with  whom  he  very  soon  acquired  the  character 
of  keeping  a  better  article  than  any  of  his  rivals  in  the  same  trade. 
He  had  obtained  possession,  too,  we  are  told,  of  a  secret  method 
of  dyeing  the  hair,  by  which  he  doubtless  contrived  to  augment 
his  profits  ;  and  perhaps,  in  his  accidental  acquaintance  with  this 
little  piece  of  chemistry,  we  may  find  the  germ  of  that  sensibility 
he  soon  began  to  manifest  to  the  value  of  new  and  unpublished  in- 
ventions in  the  arts,  and  of  his  passion  for  patent  rights  and  the 
pleasures  of  monopoly. 

It  would  appear  that  his  first  effort  in  mechanics,  as  has  hap- 


RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT, 

FOUNDER  OF  THE  COTTON  MANUFACTURE. 


RICHARD   ARKWRIGHT.  261 

pened  in  the  case  of  many  other  ingenious  men,  was  an  attempt  to 
discover  the  perpetual  motion.  It  was  in  inquiring  after  a  person 
to  make  him  some  wheels  for  a  project  of  this  kind,  that  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  1767,  he  got  acquainted  with  a  clockmaker  of  the 
name  of  Kay,  then  residing  at  Warrington,  with  whom  it  is  certain 
that  he  remained  for  a  considerable  time  after  closely  connected. 
From  this  moment  we  may  date  his  entrance  upon  a  new  career. 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  cloths  was  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  only  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  although 
stuffs,  improperly  called  Manchester  cottons,  had  been  fabricated 
nearly  three  centuries  before,  which,  however,  were  made  entirely 
of  wool.  It  is  generally  thought  that  the  first  attempt  at  the  man- 
ufacture of  cotton  goods  in  Europe  did  not  take  place  till  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  art  was  introduced  into  Italy. 
Before  this,  the  only  cottons  known  had  been  imported  from  the 
East  Indies. 

The  English  cottons,  for  many  years  after  the  introduction  of 
the  manufacture,  had  only  the  weft  of  cotton  ;  the  warp,  or  longi- 
tudinal threads  of  the  cloth,  being  of  linen.  It  was  conceived  to 
be  impracticable  to  spin  the  cotton  with  a  sufficiently  hard  twist 
to  make  it  serviceable  for  this  latter  purpose.  Although  occasion- 
ally exported,  too,  in  small  quantities,  the  manufactured  goods  were 
chiefly  consumed  at  home.  It  was  not  till  about  the  year  1760  that 
any  considerable  demand  for  them  arose  abroad. 

But  about  this  time  the  exportation  of  cottons,  both  to  the  con- 
tinent and  to  America,  began  to  be  carried  on  on  a  larger  scale, 
and  the  manufacture  of  course  received  a  corresponding  impulse. 
The  thread  had  hitherto  been  spun  entirely,  as  it  still  continues  to 
be  in  India,  by  the  tedious  process  of  the  distaff  and  spindle,  the 
spinner  drawing  out  only  a  single  thread  at  a  time.  But  as  the  de- 
mand for  the  manufactured  article  continued  to.  increase,  a  greater 
and  greater  scarcity  of  weft  was  experienced,  till,  at  last,  although 
there  were  50,000  spindles  constantly  at  work  in  Lancashire  alone, 
each  occupying  an  individual  spinner,  they  were  found  quite  insuffi- 
cient to  supply  the  quantity  of  thread  required.  The  weavers  gen- 
erally, in  those  days,  had  the  weft  they  used  spun  for  them  by  the 
females  of  their  family ;  and  now  "  those  weavers,11  says  Mr.  Guest, 
in  his  History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture,  "  whose  families  could  not 
furnish  the  necessary  supply  of  weft,  had  their  spinning  done  by 
their  neighbors,  and  were  obliged  to  pay  more  for  the  spinning  than 
the  price  allowed  by  their  masters ;  and  even  with  this  disadvantage, 
very  few  could  procure  \jjeft  enough  to  keep  themselves  constant!} 
employed.  It  was  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  weaver  to  walk  three 
or  four  miles  in  a  morning,  and  call  on  five  or  six  spinners,  befon 


262  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

he  could  collect  weft  to  serve  him  for  the  remainder  of  the  day ; 
and  when  he  wished  to  weave  a  piece  in  a  shorter  time  than  usual, 
a  new  ribband  or  gown  was  necessary  to  quicken  the  exertions  of 
the  spinner." 

It  was  natural  in  this  state  of  things,  that  attempts  should  be 
made  to  contrive  some  method  of  spinning  more  effective  than  that 
which  had  hitherto  been  in' use ;  and,  in  fact,  several  ingenious  in- 
dividuals seem  to  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  subject.  Long 
before  this  time,  indeed,  spinning  by  machinery  had  been  thought  of 
by  more  than  one  speculator.  Mr.  Wyatt,  of  Litchfield,  is  stated 
to  have  actually  invented  an  apparatus  for  that  purpose  so  early  as 
the  year  1733,  and  to  have  had  factories  built  and  filled  with  his 
machines,  both  at  Birmingham  and  Northampton.  These  undertak- 
ings, however,  not  being  successful,  the  machines  were  allowed  to 
perish,  and  no  model  or  description  of  them  was  preserved.  There 
was  also  Mr.  Laurence  Earnshaw,  of  Mottram,  in  Cheshire,  of 
whom  "  it  is  recorded  that,  in  the  year  1753,  he  invented  a  ma- 
chine to  spin  and  reel  cotton  at  one  operation,  which  he  showed  to 
his  neighbors,  and  then  destroyed  it,  through  the  generous  appre- 
hension that  he  might  deprive  the  poor  of  bread," — a  mistake,  but 
a  benevolent  one. 

From  the  year  1767,  it  appears  that  Arkwright  gave  himself  up 
completely  to  the  subject  of  inventions  for  spinning  cotton.  In  the 
following  year,  he  began  constructing  his  first  machine  at  Preston, 
in  the  dwelling-house  attached  to  the  free  grammar-school  there. 
At  this  time,  Arkwright 's  poverty  was  such,  that  being  "  a  burgess 
of  Preston,"  he  could  not  appear  to  vote  during  a  contested  election 
till  the  party  with  whom  he  voted  gave  him  a  decent  suit  of  clothes. 
Shortly  after,  apprehensive  of  meeting  with  hostility  from  one  Har- 
grave,  a  carpenter  at  Blackburn,  who  had  just  invented  the  spin- 
ning-jenny,* Arkwright  left  Lancashire,  and  went  to  Nottingham. 
Here,  after  some  disappointment  of  resources,  he  arranged  with 
Messrs.  Need  and  Jedediah  Strutt,  of  Derby,  the  latter  the  inge- 
nious improver  and  patentee  of  the  stocking-frame ;  f  and,  with 
such  aid,  Arkwright  resumed  his  experimental  labors.  He  con- 
sulted Mr.  Strutt  upon  the  matter;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact, 
strongly  corroborative  of  Arkwright  rs  claim  to  be  the  original  in- 
ventor, (which  was  subsequently  disputed,)  that  although  Mr.  Strutt 
saw  and  acknowledged  the  great  merit  of  the  invention,  he  pointed 
out  various  deficiencies,  which  the  inventor,  from  the  want  of  me- 

*  The  ienny  gave  the  means  of  spinning  twenty  or  thirty  threads  at  once,  with 
-10  more  labor  than  had  previously  been  required  to  spin  a  single  thread. 

f  Mr.  Strutt  was  the  first  individual  who  succeeded  in  adapting  the  stocking-- 
frame to  the  manufacture  of  ribbed  stockings. 


RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT.  263 

chanical  skill,  had  been  unable  to  supply.  These  defects  were 
easily  remedied  by  Mr.  Strutt ;  and  in  the  year  1769,  Arkwright 
obtained  his  first  patent  for  spinning  with  rollers,  Messrs.  Need 
and  Strutt  becoming  his  partners  in  the  manufacturing  concerns 
which  it  was  proposed  to  carry  on  under  it. 

The  improvement  for  which  this  patent  was  obtained,  or  the 
spinning-frame,  spins  a  vast  number  of  threads  of  any  degree  of 
fineness  and  hardness,  leaving  man  merely  to  feed  the  machine 
with  cotton,  and  to  join  the  threads  when  they  happen  to  break. 
The  principle  on  which  this  machine  is  constructed,  and  its  mode 
of  operation,  will  be  easily  understood.  It  consists  of  two  pairs 
of  rollers  turned  by  machinery.  The  lower  roller  of  each  pair  is 
furrowed  or  fluted  longitudinally,  and  the  upper  one  is  covered 
with  leather,  by  which  means  the  two  have  a  sufficient  hold  upon 
the  cotton  passed  between  them.  The  cotton,  when  passed  through 
the  first  pair  of  rollers,  has  the  form  of  a  thick  but  very  soft  cord, 
which  is  slightly  pressed :  but  no  sooner  has  the  cotton  carding, 
or  roving,  as  it  is  technically  called,  begun  to  pass  through  the  first 
pair  of  rollers,  than  it  is  received  by  the  second  pair,  which  are 
made  to  revolve  with  (as  the  case  may  be)  twice,  thrice,  or  ten 
times  the  velocity  of  the  first  pair,  so  that  the  cotton  is  necessarily 
drawn  out  twice,  thrice,  or  ten  times  smaller  than  when  delivered 
from  the  first  rollers. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  principle  of  the  spinning-frame  is  radically 
different  from  the  previous  methods  of  spinning,  either  by  the  com- 
mon  hand-wheel  or  distaff,  or  by  the  jenny,  which  is  only  a  modi- 
fication  of  the  common  wheel.  Spinning  by  rollers  was  entirely 
an  original  idea,  according  to  Arkwright,  suggested  to  him  by 
seeing  a  red-hot  iron  bar  elongated  by  being  made  to  pass  between 
two  rollers ;  and  though  there  is  no  mechanical  analogy  between 
that  operation  and  the  process  of  spinning,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
imagine  that,  by  reflecting  upon  it,  and  placing  the  subject  in  dif- 
ferent points  of  view,  it  might  lead  him  to  his  invention. 

The  first  mill  erected  for  spinning  cotton  by  this  method  was  at 
Nottingham,  and  was  worked  by  horse-power  ;  but,  in  1771,  an- 
other mill  was  built  at  Cromford,  in  the  parish  of  Wirksworth,  in 
Derbyshire,  to  which  motion  was  given  by  water ;  from  this  cir- 
cumstance the  machine  was  called  the  water-frame,  and  the  thread 
received  the  name  of  water-twist. 

Previous  to  this  time,  no  establishment  of  a  similar  nature  had 
existed,  none,  at  least,  to  which  the  same  system  of  management 
was  applicable ;  and  it  strongly  marks  the  judgment  and  mental 
powers  of  Arkwright,  that  although  the  details  of  manufacturing 
or  commercial  business  were  altogether  new  to  him,  he  at  once 


264  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

introduced  a  system  of  arrangement  into  his  works,  which  has 
since  been  universally  adopted  by  others,  and  which,  in  all  its 
main  features,  has  remained  unaltered  to  the  present  time. 

Arkwright  having  made  severaladditional  improvements  in  the 
processes  of  carding,  roving,  and  spinning,  he  next  took  out  a 
fresh  patent  for  the  whole  in  the  year  1775  ;  and  thus  completed 
a  series  of  machinery  so  various  and  complicated,  yet  so  admirably 
combined  and  well  adapted  to  produce  the  intended  effect,  in  its 
most  perfect  form,  as  to  excite  the  astonishment  and  admiration 
of  every  one  capable  of  appreciating  the  ingenuity  displayed  and 
the  difficulties  overcome. 

Arkwright  did  not,  however,  enjoy  the  rights  of  his  ingenuity 
without  opposition,  alike  from  the  manufacturers  and  the  spinners 
and  weavers.  Repeated  attacks  were  made  by  them  on  the  fac- 
tories built  for  Arkwright 's  machines  ;  his  patents  were  invaded 
by  the  manufacturers ;  while  it  became  the  fashion  to  depreciate 
his  talents,  and  even  to  deny  him  altogether  the  merit  of  being  an 
original  inventor.  Circumstantial  accounts  of  this  system  of  in- 
justice  towards  Arkwright  will  be  found  in  the  History  of  tha 
Cotton  Manufacture.  The  details  are  too  numerous  for  quotation 
here  ;  but  they  will  be  readily  found  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica,  in  which  is  this  conclusion : — "  We  have  access  to  know, 
that  none  of  Mr.  Arkwright's  most  intimate  friends,  and  who  were 
best  acquainted  with  his  character,  ever  had  the  slightest  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  originality  of  his  invention.  Some  of  them, 
indeed,  could  speak  to  the  circumstances  from  their  own  personal 
knowledge ;  and  their  testimony  was  uniform  and  consistent. 
Such  also  seems  to  be  the  opinion  now  generally  entertained 
among  the  principal  manufacturers  of  Manchester.1'  In  the  Penny 
Cyclopedia  it  is  remarked,  that  "  if  the  evidence  be  fully  weighed 
upon  which  it  has  been  attempted  to  convict  Arkwright  of  the 
serious  charge,  (of  pirating  other  men's  ideas,)  we  think  it  will  be 
found  to  rest  upon  very  slight  grounds  ;  while  the  proofs  which  he 
exhibited  of  possessing  talents  of  the  very  highest  order  in  the 
management  of  the  vast  concerns  in  which  he  was  afterwards 
engaged,  are  unquestionable." 

It  was  not  until  after  the  lapse  of  five  years  from  their  erection 
that  by  the  works  at  Cromford  any  profit  was  realized ;  but  from 
that  time  wealth  flowed  in  abundantly  to  the  proprietors.  The 
establishments  were  greatly  extended,  several  new  ones  were 
formed,  and,  in  many  cases,  Arkwright  took  a  share  with  other 
persons  in  the  erection  and  working  of  cotton-mills.  The  tide  to 
fortune  had  set  in,  and  continued  to  flow,  notwithstanding  Ark- 
wright's  patent  had  been  cancelled  by  law.  "  For  several  years, 


RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT.  267 

the  market  prices  of  cotton  twist  were  fixed  by  Arkwright,  all 
other  spinners  conforming  to  his  scale.  The  same  quality  of  this 
article  which  now  sells  for  3s.  per  pound,  sold  in  1790  for  ten 
times  that  price,  and  was  as  high  as  II.  18s.  per  pound ;  and  al- 
though a  great  part  of  this  difference  is,  no  doubt,  owing  to  a  pro- 
gressive  economy  attained  in  the  processes  of  manufacture,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  imagine  that  the  larger  price  must  have  been  ex- 
ceedingly profitable  to  the  spinner." 

Meanwhile,  Arkwright  had  almost  built  the  town  of  Cromford, 
in  a  deep  valley  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Derwent.  The  struc- 
tures are  chiefly  of  excellent  gritstone  procured  in  the  neighbor- 
hood ;  and  here  Arkwright  lived  in  patriarchal  prosperity  amidst 
the  scenes  of  industry  where  he  raised  up  his  own  fortune.  The 
mills  arc  to  this  day  supplied  from  a  never-failing  spring  of  warm 
water,  which  also  proves  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  canal  in 
severe  seasons,  as  it  rarely  freezes,  in  consequence  of  a  portion 
of  the  water  from  this  spring  flowing  into  it.  The  mill  engraved 
on  the  adjoining  page  is  a  spacious  building  near  the  upper  end 
of  the  Dale  :  its  operations  have  been  elegantly  described  by  Dr. 
Darwin,  in  his  Botanic  Garden, — "  a  work  which  discovers  the 
art,  hitherto  unknown,  of  clothing  in  poetical  language,  and  deco- 
rating with  beautiful  imagery,  the  unpoetical  operations  of  me- 
chanical processes,  and  the  dry  detail  of  manufactures  :" — 

"  Where  Derwent  guides  his  dusky  floods, 
Through  vaulted  mountains,  and  a  night  of  woods, 
The  nymph  Gossypia  treads  the  velvet  sod, 
And  warms  with  rosy  smiles  the  watery  god ; 
His  ponderous  oars  to  slender  spindles  turns, 
And  pours  o'er  massy  wheels  his  foaming  urns ; 
With  playful  charms  her  hoary  lover  wins, 
And  wheels  his  trident,  while  the  Monarch  spins. 
First,  with  nice  eye  emerging  Naiads  cull 
From  leathery  pods  the  vegetable  wool ; 
With  wiry  teeth  revolving  cards  release 
The  tangled  knots,  and  smooth  the  ravell'd  fleece ; 
Next  moves  the  iron  hand  with  fingers  fine, 
Combs  the  wide  card,  and  forms  th'  eternal  line ; 
Slow  with  soft  lips  the  whirling  can  acquires 
The  tender  skeins,  and  wraps  in  rising  spires  ; 
With  quicken'd  pace  successive  rollers  move, 
And  these  retain,  and  those  extend,  the  rove ; 
Then  fly  the  spokes,  the  rapid  axles  glow ; 
While  slowly  circumvolves  the  lab'ring  wheel  below." 

Nor  was  Cromford  benefited  only  by  the  ingenuity  of  its  founder 
in  a  commercial  sense  ;  for,  having  obtained  the  grant  of  a  market 
for  the  town,  he  commenced  building  a  chapel  of  freestone,  which 
has  since  been  completed  by  his  son.  He  liberally  contributed  to 
educational  and  other  charities.  In  1786,  he  was  appointed  high 


268  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

sheriff  of  Derbyshire,  and,  on  the  occasion  of  presenting  an  address 
of  congratulation  to  the  king  on  his  escaping  the  attempt  at  assas- 
sination by  Margaret  Nicholson,  Mr.  Arkwright  received  the  honor 
of  knighthood.  Though  a  man  of  great  personal  strength,  during 
the  whole  of  his  active  career  he  was  laboring  under  a  very  severe 
asthma.  Yet,  to  the  latest  period  of  his  life,  Sir  Richard  continued 
to  give  unrermtted  attention  to  business,  and  superintended  the 
daily  operations  of  his  large  establishments,  adding  from  time  to 
time  such  improvements  to  the  machinery  as  were  suggested  by 
experience  and  observation.  He  sank,  at  length,  under  a  compli. 
cation  of  disorders,  accelerated,  if  not  produced,  by  his  sedentary 
habits,  and  died  in  his  house  at  Cromford,  on  August  3,  1792,  in 
the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  leaving  behind  him  a  fortune  estimated 
at  little  short  of  half  a  million. 

The  death  of  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  was  a  sorrowful  event  to 
all  classes  of  this  district.  His  funeral  was  conducted  with  fitting 
splendor.  Mr.  Malcolm,  the  antiquarian,  was  entering  Matlock 
from  Chesterfield,  at  the  time  when  the  procession  was  passing  to 
Matlock  church,  where  the  body  was  first  interred ;  he  says — "  as 
the  ground  I  was  on  was  much  higher  than  the  Tor,  or  any  of  the 
hills  at  Matlock,  I  was  at  once  surprised  and  delighted  with  the 
grand  and  awful  scene  that  expanded  below  me  ;  all  the  rich  pro- 
fusion of  wild  nature  thrown  together  in  an  assemblage  of  objects 
the  most  sublime.  To  heighten  the  view,  the  Tor,  and  rocks  near 

it,  were  covered  with  crowds  of  people The  road  was  nearly 

impassable,  from  the  crowds  of  people  who  had  assembled  to  wit- 
ness the  procession.  The  ceremony  was  conducted  with  much 
pomp,  and,  as  nearly  as  I  can  remember,  was  thus :  a  coach  and 
four  with  the  clergy;  another  with  the  pall-bearers;  the  hearse, 
covered  with  escutcheons,  and  surrounded  by  mutes,  followed ; 
then  the  horse  of  the  deceased,  led  by  a  servant ;  the  relations, 
and  about  fifteen  or  twenty  carriages,  closed  the  procession,  which 
was  nearly  half  a  mile  in  length.  The  evening  was  gloomy,  and 
the  solemn  stillness  that  reigned  was  only  interrupted  by  the 
rumbling  of  the  carriages,  and  the  gentle  murmurs  of  the  river; 
and,  as  they  passed,  the  echo  of  the  Tor  gently  returned  the  sound. 
The  scene  was  so  rich  and  uncommon  that  I  continued  to  gaze 
till  a  turn  in  the  road  closed  the  whole.  How  greatly  would  the 
effect  have  been  heightened  by  a  choir  chanting  a  dirge  /" 

The  body  was  subsequently  removed  to  Cromford  chapel,  where- 
in is  the  family  vault  of  the  Arkwrights,  with  a  beautiful  monument 
by  Chantrey. 

The  character  of  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  is  one  upon  which  we 
could  linger  with  untiring  interest ;  so  fine  a  specimen  was  he  of 


RICHARD  ARKWRIGHT.  269 

genius,  industry,  and  perseverance :  he  was,  indeed,  one  of  the 
honorables  of  the  land.  In  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  it  is 
truly  remarked ;  "  No  man  ever  better  deserved  his  good  fortune, 
or  has  a  stronger  claim  on  the  respect  and  gratitude  of  posterity. 
His  inventions  have  opened  a  new  and  boundless  field  of  employ- 
ment ;  and  while  they  have  conferred  infinitely  more  real  benefit 
on  his  native  country  than  she  could  have  derived  from  the  abso- 
iute  dominion  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  they  have  been  universally 
productive  of  wealth  and  enjoyments.11 

The  most  marked  traits  of  Arkwright  were  his  wonderful 
ardor,  energy,  and  perseverance.  He  commonly  labored  in  his 
multifarious  concerns  from  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  till  nine  at 
night ;  and  that,  too,  when  considerably  more  than  fifty  years  of 
age.  Feeling  that  his  defects  of  education  placed  him  under  great 
difficulty  and  inconvenience  in  conducting  his  correspondence,  and 
in  the  general  management  of  his  business,  he  encroached  upon 
his  sleep,  in  order  to  gain  an  hour  each  day  to  learn  English 
grammar,  and  another  hour  to  improve  his  writing  and  orthog- 
raphy. He  was  impatient  of  whatever  interfered  with  his  favorite 
pursuits  ;  and  the  fact  is  too  strikingly  characteristic  not  to  be 
mentioned,  that  he  separated  from  his  wife  not  many  years  after 
their  marriage,  because  she,  convinced  that  he  would  starve  his 
family  by  scheming  when  he  should  be  shaving,  broke  some  of  his 
experimental  models  of  machinery.  He  was  a  severe  economist 
of  time  ;  and,  that  he  might  not  waste  a  moment,  generally  trav- 
elled with  four  horses  at  full  speed.  His  concerns  in  Derbyshire, 
Lancashire,  and  Scotland  were  so  extensive  and  numerous,  as  to 
show  at  once  his  astonishing  power  of  transacting  business.  In- 
deed, his  schemes  were  vast  and  daring,  as  his  talents  were  great 
and  his  industry  indefatigable. 

Thus  it  was  from  a  poor  barber  he  raised  himself  to  what  he 
eventually  became — -not  merely  to  rank  and  great  affluence,  but  to 
be  the  founder  of  a  new  branch  of  national  industry,  destined,  in 
a  wonderfully  short  space  of  time,  to  assume  the  very  first  placo 
among  the  manufactures  of  his  country.  So  great  has  been  its 
increase,  that  it  has  been  calculated  that,  while  the  number  of  per- 
sons in  his  native  country,  previous  to  his  inventions,  who  were 
employed  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  did  not  probably  amount  to 
thirty  thousand,  the  number  now  engaged  in  its  different  depart- 
ments can  hardly  be  less  than  a  million.  Yet,  in  some  branches 
of  the  business,  it  has  been  stated,  the  spinning  in  particular, 
such  is  the  economy  of  labor  introduced  by  the  use  of  machinery, 
that  one  man  and  four  children  will  spin  as  much  yarn  as  was 
spun  by  six  hundred  women  and  girls,  seventy  years  ago ! 

19 


M.  GUINAND 

ABOUT  eighty  years  have  elapsed,  since  this  interesting  man 
was  employed  in  assisting  his  father,  as  a  joiner,  in  a  remote 
village  among  the  mountains  of  Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland.  His 
parent  must  have  been  in  very  indifferent  circumstances,  as  his 
eon  was  thus  engaged  when  only  ten  years  of  age."  His  early 
education  was  much  neglected  ;  indeed,  he  never  acquired  more 
than  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  jftrst  rudiments  of  learning, 
always  reading  with  difficulty,  and  writing  very  imperfectly.  He 
must,  even  at  this  early  period,  have  been  a  lad  of  considerable 
talent,  and  of  a  disposition  that  urged  him  to  the  exertion  requi- 
site for  raising  his  condition  in  society.  We  find  him,  when  be- 
tween thirteen  and  fourteen  years  old,  having  quitted  the  employ- 
ment of  a  joiner  for  that  of  a  cabinetmaker,  chiefly  engaged  in 
making  cases  for  clocks. 

At  this  period  he  became  acquainted  with  a  buckle  maker, 
who  lived  in  the  neighborhood,  and  of  whom  he  learned  the  art 
of  casting,  and  working  in  various  metals,  which  enabled  him 
about  the  age  of  twenty,  after  once  witnessing  the  process,  to  at- 
tempt the  construction  of  a  watch  case  ;  having  succeeded,  he 
adopted  the  occupation  of  a  watch-case  maker,  which  was  then 
very  lucrative. 

Having  constructed  clock  cases  for  M.  Jaquet  Droz,  the  well 
known  constructor  of  several  automaton  figures,  which  fifty  years 
ago  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  he  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing, 
at  the  house  of  that  celebrated  mechanist,  a  very  fine  English 
reflecting  telescope,  which  appeared  to  him  extremely  curious 
and  interesting.  These  instruments  were  very  rare  at  that  time 
in  Switzerland,  especially  among  the  mountains.  M.  Guinand 
was  then  in  his  twentieth  or  twenty-third  year,  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  this  circumstance,  in  itself  unimportant,  first  turned 
his  mind  towards  that  subject,  to  which,  encouraged  by  success, 
he  afterwards  more  particularly  devoted  himself. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  having  expressed  a  wish  to  be  allowed  to 
take  to  pieces  this  telescope,  that  he  might  examine  it  in  detail, 
M.  Jaquet  Droz,  who  had  noticed  his  dexterity,  kindly  gave  him 
permission,  and  with  equal  good-nature  relieved  him  from  his  ap- 
prehension of  being  unable  to  put  it  together  again,  by  taking  that 
task  upon  himself,  if  it  should  prove  too  difficult  for  him.  Thus 
encouraged,  he  took  the  instrument  to  pieces,  accurately  measured 
the  curves  of  the  reflectors  and  glasses,  and  afterwards  readily 


M.   GUINAND.  271 

put  it  together ;  then  availing  himself  of  the  few  notions  of  metal- 
lurgy which  he  had  acquired  from  his  friend  the  buckle  maker, 
as  well  as  the  experience  he  had  acquired  in  casting  ornaments 
for  clock  cases,  he  attempted  the  construction  of  a  similar  tele- 
scope, and  the  experiment  succeeded  so  well,  that  on  a  compara- 
tive trial  of  his  own  instrument  with  that  which  had  been  its 
model  in  presence  of  a  great  number  of  persons,  it  was  impossible 
to  determine  which  of  them  the  preference  was  due. 

M.  Jaquet  Droz,  surprised  at  his  success,  asked'  our  young 
friend  what  treatise  on  optics  he  had  followed  as  his  guide,  and 
was  astonished  when  he  informed  him  that  he  was  unacquainted 
with  any.  He  then  placed  one  in  his  hands ;  and  it  was  not  until 
this  period  that  M.  Guinand  studied,  or  rather  deciphered  the 
principles  of  that  science. 

About  the  same  time  occurred  another  fortunate  circumstance, 
in  itself  as  trivial  as  the  former.  Having  been  always  weak 
sighted,  he  found,  when  he  began  to  make  watch  cases,  that  the 
spectacles  which  had  hitherto  answered  his  purpose,  were  no 
longer  of  service,  and  being  directed  to  a  person  whose  glasses 
were  said  to  have  given  great  satisfaction,  he  obtained  a  pair, 
which  really  suited  him  no  better  than  the  others,  but  by  looking 
on  while  they  were  making,  he  learned  the  art  of  forming  and 
polishing  the  lenses.  He,  therefore,  undertook  to  make  specta- 
cles, not  only  for  himself,  but  for  various  other  persons,  who  pro- 
nounced them  excellent.  This  new  acquirement,  he  found  very 
useful  in  his  favorite  pursuit ;  and  he  amused  himself  in  manu- 
facturing great  numbers  of  telescopes  of  an  inferior  quality,  for 
which  he  made  the  tubes  himself,  generally  of  pasteboard.  He 
also  studied  the  small  number  of  works  he  was  able  to  procure, 
which  treated  on  subjects  connected  with  optics. 

Meanwhile  the  ingenious  and  important  discovery  of  achromatic 
glasses  was  beginning  to  spread  ;  and  having  reached  that  country, 
it  could  not  fail  of  being  very  interesting  to  M.  Guinand,  who 
listened  with  avidity  to  all  he  heard  on  this  subject.  M.  Jaquet 
Droz,  having-  procured  one  of  these  new  glasses,. permitted  M. 
Guinand,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  reflecting  telescope,  to  take  it 
to  pieces,  and  to  separate  the  lenses.  It  will  be -readily  conceived 
that  the  purpose  of  the  latter  was  to  attempt  the  construction  of 
a  similar  instrument,  bu-t  in  this  he  was  impeded  by  the  difficulty 
of  procuring  glasses  of  different  refractive  power.  It  was  not 
until  some  years  after,  that  an  acquaintance  of  his,  M.  Recordon, 
having  proceeded  to  England,  where  he  obtained  a  patent  for  his 
self-winding  watches,  which  were  then  in  great  request,  brought 
him  from  that  country  some  flint  glass ;  and  though  the  specimen 


272  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

was  much  striated,  he  found  means  to  manufacture  from  it  some 
tolerably  good  achromatic  glasses. 

Having  obtained  supplies  of  this  material  on  various  occasions, 
and  having  seen  other  glasses  besides  those  of  M.  Jaquet  Droz,  he 
easily  ascertained  that  flint  glass  which  is  not  extremely  defective, 
is  rarely  to  be  met  with.  Thus  convinced  of  the  impossibility  of 
procuring  it  of  that  quality  which  he  ardently  wished  to  obtain  for 
the  construction  of  his  telescopes,  and  having  by  his  various  la- 
bors become  sufficiently  skilled  in  the  art  of  fusion,  he  melted  in 
his  blast  furnace  the  fragments  of  this  flint  glass ;  no  satisfactory 
result  was  obtained,  but  he  discovered  from  some  particles  of  lead 
which  reappeared  during  the  process,  that  this  metal  was  a  con- 
stituent in  the  composition  of  flint  glass.  At  the  time  of  his  first 
experiment  he  had  attained  his  thirty  fifth  or  sixth  year.  The 
ardent  desire  to  obtain  some  of  this  glass  then  induced  him  to  col- 
lect from  the  different  works  he  was  able  to  procure,  such  notions 
of  chemistry  as  might  be  useful  to  him  in  his  attempts  at  vitrifica- 
tion ;  and  during  six  or  seven  years  he  employed  a  part  of  his 
evenings  in  different  experiments,  melting  at  each  time  in  his  blast 
furnace  three  or  four  pounds  of  glass  ;  he  took  care,  in  every  ex- 
periment, to  note  down  the  substance  and  proportions  of  his  com- 
binations, the  time  of  their  fusion,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
degree  of  heat  to  which  he  had  subjected  them  ;  then,  by  an  atten- 
tive examination  of  the  results  of  his  experiments,  he  endeavored 
to  discover  the  causes  which  had  rendered  his  products  defective, 
in  order  that  he  might  remedy  them  in  a  subsequent  trial.  While 
occupied  in  these  researches  he  derived  a  strong  incentive  to  per- 
severance, from  the  prizes  which  he  understood  to  have  been  offer- 
ed for  this  desideratum  by  different  academies,  and  especially  by 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  a  copy  of  whose  proposals  was  pro- 
cured for  him.  At  a  later  period  he  also  learned  in  a  more  posi- 
tive manner,  from  statements  given  in  a  work  which  fell  into  his 
hands,  of  the  almost  total  impossibility  which  existed  of  procuring 
flint  glass  exempt  from  striae ;  all  this  impressed  him  with  the  im- 
portance of  the  discovery  at  which  he  was  aiming,  and  stimulated 
him  in  the  pursuit.  These  experiments,  however,  were  made,  as 
he  observed,  on  too  small  a  scale,  and  proved  fruitless. 

At  the  age  of  forty  and  upwards,  having  relinquished  the  trade 
of  watch-case  maker  for  that  of  maker  of  bells  for  repeaters,  at 
that  time  very  lucrative,  (since  he  could  make  as  many  as  twenty- 
four  in  a  day,  for  which  he  was  paid  five  francs  each,)  he  resolved 
to  prosecute  his  experiments  on  a  more  extended  scale.  Having 
purchased  a  retired  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Doubs,  near  the  Bre- 
nets,  where  the  establishment  is  at  present  situated,  he  constructed 


M.  GUINAND.  273 

with  his  own  hands  a  furnace  capable  of  melting  at  one  time  two 
hundred  weight  of  glass,  and  settled  there  with  his  family  on  a  very 
economical  plan,  in  order  to  dedicate  all  his  earnings  and  leisure 
to  new  and  expensive  experiments  ;  yet  he  was  compelled  to  em- 
ploy an  interval  between  each  one  of  his  experiments  in  earning  at 
his  regular  employment  sufficient  means  for  subsistence,  and  for 
providing  the  apparatus  and  materials  needful  for  renewing  them. 

In  this  pursuit  he  was  still  exposed  to  numerous  accidents  and 
difficulties,  which  would  have  deterred  most  persons  from  continu- 
ing the  research.  His  furnace,  which  he  had  constructed  with  his 
own  hands,  out  of  such  materials  as  he  could  procure,  and  which 
was  capable  of  melting  at  once  two  hundred  pounds  of  glass, 
proved  defective.  He  was  then  obliged  to  procure  materials  for  the 
purpose  from  abroad,  and  having  once  more  completed  its  erection, 
and  consumed  much  fuel  in  heating  it,  had  the  mortification  to  find 
that  it  still  required  alteration.  Then  his  crucibles,  which  he  was 
equally  obliged  to  form  with  materials  ill-qualified  for  the  object, 
cracked  during  the  process,  and  the  contents  were  lost  among  the 
ashes.  All  this  time  the  pursuit  had  laid  hold  so  completely  of 
his  mind,  that  he  was  deprived  of  his  natural  rest  while  consider- 
ing upon  the  causes  of  his  various  failures,  and  endeavoring  to 
reason  out  the  means  for  their  prevention. 

Having  at  length  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  block  of  glass  weigh- 
ing about  two  hundred  pounds,  and  having  sawn  it  into  two  verti- 
cal sections,  he  polished  one  of  the  faces,  in  order,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, to  examine  the  circumstances  produced  by  the  fusion. 

To  account  for  the  numerous  and  various  defects  exhibited  by 
this  specimen,  Guinand  formed  a  theory  which  he  made  the  ground- 
work of  his  future  operations.  A  more .  intimate  knowledge  of 
these  defects,  and  a  conviction  thus  attained  of  the  great  difficulties 
opposed  to  their  removal,  instead  of  damping  his  ardor  in  the  pur- 
suit, served  to  infuse  new  energy  into  his  mind.  Nor  was  he 
mistaken  in  his  estimate  of  the  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  ;  "  so 
that,'1  as  he  himself  declared,  "  the  sacrifices  and  exertions  which 
he  had  previously  made,  were  trifling  when  compared  with  those 
which  he  afterwards  underwent  for  the  purpose  of  removing  these 
various  defects,  and  of  rendering  his  glass  homogeneous."- 

The  steps  through  which  he  pursued  this  arduous  undertaking, 
and  the  methods  by  which  its  success  was  accomplished,  it  is  not 
possible  to  detail.  All  that  is  publicly  known  upon  the  subject  is, 
that  he  succeeded  in  discovering  a  mode  of  proceeding  which  gave 
the  almost  certainty  of  producing  in  the  fusion  of  a  pot  containing 
from  two  to  four  hundred  pounds  of  glass,  one  half  at  least  of  its 
substance  entirely  of  the  same  nature,  and  therefore  fitted  for  the 

19* 


274  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

construction  of  perfect  optical  instruments.  With  this  result,  sat- 
isfactory as  it  would  have  been  to  most  men,  Guinand  expressed 
himself  by  no  means  contented,  and  continued  his  researches, 
without,  however,  ever  arriving  much  nearer  to  perfection  in  the 
art.  He  was  now  enabled  to  make  use  of,  for  discs,  glass  perfectly 
homogeneous,  with  a  diameter  of  twelve  inches  :  a  great  achieve- 
ment, when  compared  with  what  had  been  at  any  time  accomplish- 
ed by  others. 

A  year  or  two  before  his  death,  he  tried  an  experiment  on  a 
larger  scale  than  any  he  had  previously  attempted.  After  much 
trouble  and  exertion,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  disc  of  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter,  of  perfectly  homogeneous  glass.  The  disc 
had  been  put  into  the  oven  for  the  last  time,  to  be  gradually  cooled : 
and  the  operation  being  now  considered  as  completed,  his  friends 
and  neighbors  were  admitted,  and  partook  of  some  refreshment ; 
while  offering  their  congratulations  on  his  unprecedented  success 
after  so  long  a  seclusion,  the  fire  by  some  accident  or  neglect  caught 
the  roof  of  the  building.  On  this  alarming  occasion  all  present 
exerted  themselves,  and  after  some  trouble  the  flames  were  extin- 
guished  ;  but  not  before  some  water  had  found  its  way  into  the  oven 
and  destroyed  its  precious  contents.  .The  discouragement  caused 
by  this  misfortune,  and  some  other  circumstances,  ever  after  pre- 
vented him  from  any  experiment  on  a  similar  scale. 

For  some  time  after  he  had  thus  far  succeeded  in  his  object,  he 
was  accustomed  to  divide  his  blocks  of  glass  by  that  which  appear- 
ed to  be  the  only  fitting  method,  sawing  them  into  sections  perpen- 
dicular to  their  axis,  polishing  their  sections,  and-  then  selecting 
such  parts  as  were  adapted  to  his  purpose,  returning  the  remaining 
portion  to  the  crucible  for  farther  operations.  By  this  means  he 
had  frequently  the  mortification  of  perceiving,  that  the  glass  was 
divided  so  as  to  present  a  less  extended  surface  of  the  perfect  ma- 
terial, than  the  state  of  the  block  would,  if  previously  known,  have 
rendered  possible  ;  and  he  was  frequently  able  to  procure  discs  of 
only  small  diameter,  when,  could  he  have  been  fully  aware  of  the 
particular  circumstances  of  the  glass  throughout  its  substance,  he 
might,  by  cutting  in  another  direction,  have  obtained  a  more  satis- 
factory result. 

This  disadvantage  was  remedied  in  a  way  apparently  as  unto. 
ward  as  it  was  singular  and  unexpected.  While  his  men  were 
carrying  one  day  a  block  of  glass  on  a  handbarrow  to  a  water  saw- 
mill, which  he  had  constructed  at  the  fall  of  the  river  Doubs,  a 
short  distance  from  his  dwelling,  the  mass  accidentally  slipped,  and 
rolling  to  the  bottom  of  a  rocky  declivity,  was  broken  into  several 
pieces.  Endeavoring  to  make  the  best  of  this  seeming  misfortune, 


M.  GUINAND.  275 

such  fragments  of  glass  were  selected  for  operation  as  appeared 
to  be  fitted  by  their  homogeniety  for  the  purpose ;  and  these  were 
softened  in  circular  moulds,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  furnished 
discs  of  a  very  satisfactory  quality.  Further  examination  enabled 
him  to  perceive  that  the  fracture  had  in  a  great  measure  followed 
the  variations  of  density  in  the  glass ;  and,  pursuing  the  idea  thus 
obtained,  the  artist  thenceforth  adhered  to  a  method  so  singularly 
in  the  first  instance  forced  upon  him. 

After  this,  he  contrived  a  mode  of  cleaving  the  glass  while -cool- 
ing, so  that  the  fracture  accompanied  the  direction  of  the  more 
faulty  parts  ;  by  which  course  he  frequently  obtained  masses  of 
glass  which  were  absolutely  homogeneous,  weighing  from  forty  to 
fifty  pounds.  These  masses,  cleft  again  by  means  of  wedges  into 
pieces  of  convenient  shape,  were  remelted  into  moulds  which  gave 
them  the  form  of  discs ;  an  operation  which  differs  essentially 
from  that  used  by  other  glass  makers. 

Several  years  of  his  life  were  thus  employed  in  making  bells  for 
repeating  watches  and  constructing  achromatic  telescopes  with 
glass  of  his  own  preparing.  The  retired  spot  wherein  he  resided, 
offered  only  very  limited  opportunities  for  acquiring  a  reputation 
in  the  world ;  yet,  by  degrees,  the  superior  value  of  his  labors 
became  appreciated,  and  he  was  visited  by  such  men  of  science 
as  travelled  in  the  neighborhood  of  his  dwelling.  By  one  of  these 
a  knowledge  of  his  merits  was  conveyed  to  M.  Frauenhofer,  the 
chief  of  a  celebrated  manufactory  for  optical  instruments,  estab- 
lished  at  Benedictbeurn,  in  Bavaria.  This  gentleman  having,  in 
consequence,  obtained  some  discs  of  glass  made  by  Guinand, 
found  their  quality  so  satisfactory,  that  he  repaired  in  person  to 
Brenets,  where  Guinand  resided,  and  engaged  him  to  settle  in 
Bavaria.  This  was  in  1805,  when  Guinand  was  upwards  of  sixty 
years  of  age.  He  continued  at  this  place  during  nine  years,  oc- 
cupied solely  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  to  the  great  increase  of 
his  employer's  reputation. 

Being  desirous,  at  the  end  of  this  time,  to  return  to  his  native 
land,  a  pensioh  was  granted  to  him  by  the  establishment,  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  no  longer  employ  himself  in  making  glass, 
nor  disclose  his  process  to  any  person  whatever ;  a  condition 
which  did  not  long  agree  with  the  still  active  energies  of  his  mind. 
Believing,  by  new  experiments,  he  could  raise  his  discovery  to  a 
yet  higher  degree  of  improvement,  he  obtained  the  consent  of 
Frauenhofer,  to  cancel  their  subsisting  agreement ;  and,  relin- 
quishing his  pension,  once  again  devoted  himself  with  ardor  to  his 
favorite  pursuit. 

He  lived  seven  years  after  this  time,  and  produced  several 


276  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

telescopes  of  great  magnitude,  and  remarkable  for  their  excellence ; 
it  being  perhaps  not  the  least  extraordinary  among  the  circum- 
stances attending  them,  that,  to  use  the  words  of  the  memoir  from 
whence  the  foregoing  account  is  drawn,  "  they  have  been  con- 
structed by  an  old  man  upwards  of  seventy,  who  himself  manu- 
factures the  flint  and  crown  glass  which  he  uses  in  their  construc- 
tion, after  having  made,  with  his  own.  hands,  the  vitrifying  furnace 
and  his  crucibles ;  who,  without  any  mathematical  knowledge, 
devises  a  graphic  method  of  ascertaining  the  proportions  of  the 
curves  that  must  be  given  to  the  lenses,  afterwards  works  and 
polishes  them  by  means  peculiar  himself,  and  lastly,  constructs 
all  the  parts  of  the  different  mountings  either  with  joints  or  with 
stands,  melts  and  turns  the  plates,  solders  the  tube,  prepares  the 
wood,  and  compounds  the  varnish.'11 

M.  Guinand  died  in  1823,  in  his  eightieth  year.  The  preced- 
ing pages  show  how  greatly  his  loss  is  to  be  deplored.  After 
half  a  century  of  research,  he  was  the  only  man  in  Europe  who 
had  succeeded  in  obtaining  large  specimens  of  that  flint  glass 
which  is  so  indispensable  for  the  construction  of  achromatic  lenses, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  difficult  to  obtain  free  from  stria?  in  any 
considerable  magnitude.  Arrangements  had  been  made  by  the 
French  government  for  purchasing  his  secret  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  assailed  by  infirmities 
incident  to  his  multifarious  labors  and  advanced  age.  It  is  to  be 
lamented,  that  after  sacrificing  so  much  to  his  art,  so  much  more 
than  could  have  been  expected  from  a  man  in  his  circumstances, 
he  should  derive  from  them  so  little  advantage ;  and  lastly,  it  is 
painful  to  think  that  this  man,  in  attaching  so  little  importance  to 
the. honor  of  his  discovery,  should  not  have  made  it  more  exten-,  • 
sively  known,  and  connected  it  more  closely  with  his  name ;  since 
it  is  a  discovery  which,  by  the  perfection  it  imparts  to  telescopes, 
opens  the  way  to  very  important  acquisitions  in  the  vast  field  which 
the  heavens  still  offer  to  optical  instruments  in  a  state  of  perfection. 
The  secret,  however,  did  not  die  with  him,  but  is  possessed  by  his 
son,  who  continues  to  labor  in  the  employment  "so  singularly 
commenced,  and  so  energetically  and  successfully  followed  by  the 
father. 


JAMES  WATT. 


JAMES    WATT. 

"  Nature,  in  her  productions  slow,  aspires 
By  just  degrees  to  reach  perfection's  height : 
So  mimic  art  works  leisurely,  till  time 
Improve  the  price,  or  wise  experience  give 
The  proper  finishing." 

ALL  the  inventions  and  improvements  of  recent  times,  if  mea- 
sured by  their  effects  upon  the  condition  of  society,  sink  into  insig, 
nificance,  when  compared  with  the  extraordinary  results  which 
have  followed  the  employment  of  steam  as  a  mechanical  agent. 
To  one  individual,  the  illustrious  JAMES  WATT,  the  merit  and  honor 
of  having  first  rendered  it  extensively  available  for  that  purpose  are 
pre-eminently  due.  The  force  of  steam,  now  so  important  an  agent 
in  mechanics,  was  nearly  altogether  overlooked  until  within  the 
two  last  centuries.  The  only  application  of  it  which  appears  to 
have  been  made  by  the  ancients,  was  in  the  construction  of  the 
instrument  which  they  called  the  ^Eolipile,  that  is,  the  Ball  of 
^Eolus.  The  ^Eolipile  consisted  of  a  hollow  globe  of  metal,  with 
a  long  neck,  terminating  in  a  very  small  orifice,  which,  being  filled 
with  water  and  placed  on  a  fire,  exhibited  the  steam,  as  it  was 
generated  by  the  heat,  rushing  with  apparently  great  force  through 
the  narrow  opening.  A  common  teakettle,  in  fact,  is  a  sort  of 
^Eolipile.  The  only  use  which  the  ancients  proposed  to  make  of 
this  contrivance  was,  to  apply  the  current  of  steam,  as  it  issued 
from  the  spout,  by  way  of  a  moving  force — to  propel,  for  instance, 
the  vans  of  a  mill,  or,  by  acting  immediately  upon  the  air,  to  gene- 
rate a  movement  opposite  to  its  own  direction.  But  it  was  impos- 
sible that  they  should  have  effected  any  useful  purpose  by  such 
methods  of  employing  steam.  Steam  depends  so  entirely  for  its 
existence  in  the  state  of  vapor  upon  the  presence  of  a  large  quan- 
tity of  heat,  that  it  is  reduced  to  a  mist  or  a  fluid  almost  imme- 
diately on  coming  into  contact  either  with  the  atmosphere,  or  any 
thing  else  which  is  colder  than  itself;  and  in  this  condition  its 
expansive  force  is  gone.  The  only  way  of  employing  steam  with 
much  effect,  therefore,  is  to  make  it  act  in  a  close  vessel.  The 
first  known  writer  who  alludes  to  the  prodigious  energy  which  it 
exerts  when,  thus  confined,  is  the  French  engineer  Solomon  de 
Caus,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
This  ingenious  person,  who  came  to  England  in  1612,  in  the  train 
of  the  Elector  Palatine,  afterwards  the  son-in-law  of  James  I., 
where  he  resided  for  some  years,  published  a  folio  volume  at  Paris, 


280  FOREIGN  MECHANICS.  • 

in  1623,  on  moving  forces ;  in  which  he  states,  that  if  water  be 
sufficiently  heated  in  a  close  ball  of  copper,  the  air  or  steam  arising 
from  it  will  at  last  burst  the  ball,  with  a  noise  like  the  going  off  of 
a  petard.  In  another  place,  he  actually  describes  a  method  of 
raising  water,  as  he  expresses  it,  by  the  aid  of  fire,  which  consists 
in  the  insertion,  in  the  containing  vessel,  of  a  perpendicular  tube, 
reaching  nearly  to  its  bottom,  through  which,  he  says,  all  the  water 
will  rise,  when  sufficiently  heated.  The  agent  here  is  the  steam 
produced  from  part  of  the  water  by  the  heat,  which,  acting  by  its 
expansive  force  upon  the  rest  of  the  water,  forces  it  to  make  its 
escape  in  a  jet  through  the  tube.  The  supply  of  the  water  is  kept 
up  through  a  cock  in  the  side  of  the  vessel.  Forty  years  after  the 
publication  of  the  work  of  De  Caus  appeared  the  Marquis  of  Wor- 
cester's famous  "  Century  of  Inventions.11  Of  the  hundred  new 
discoveries  here  enumerated,  the  sixty-eighth  is  entitled  "  An  ad. 
mirable  and  most  forcible  way  to.  drive  up  water  by  fire.11  As  far 
as  may  be  judged  from  the  vague  description  which  the  marquis 
gives  us  of  his  apparatus,  it  appears  to  have  been  constructed  upon 
the  same  principle  with  that  formerly  proposed  by  De  Caus ;  but 
his  account  of  the  effect  produced  is  considerably  more  precise 
than  what  we  find  in  the  work  of  his  predecessor.  "  I  have  seen 
the  water  run,"  says  he,  "  like  a  constant  fountain-stream  forty 
feet  high  ;  one  vessel  of  water  rarified  by  fire,  driveth  up  forty  of 
cold  water.11  This  language  would  imply  that  the  marquis  had 
actually  reduced  his  idea  to  practice ;  and  if,  as  he  seems  to  inti- 
mate, he  made  use  of  a  cannon  for  his  boiler,  the  experiment  was 
probably  upon  a  considerable  scale.  It  is  with  some  justice,  there- 
fore, that  notwithstanding  the  earlier  announcements  in  the  work 
of  the  French  engineer,  he  is  generally  regarded  as  the  first  person 
who  really  constructed  a  steam  engine. 

About  twenty  years  after  this,  namely,  in  the  year  1683,  Sir 
Samuel  Morland  appears  to  have  presented  a  work  to  the  French 
king,  containing,  among  other  projects,  a  method  of  employing 
steam  as  a  mechanic  power,,  which  he  expressly  says  he  had  him- 
self invented  the  preceding  year.  The  manuscript  of  this  work  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  when  the 
work,  which  is  in  French,  was  afterwards  published  by  its  author 
at  Paris,  in  1685,  the  passage  about  the  steam  engine  was  omitted. 
Sir  Samuel  Morland 'a  invention,  as  we  find  it  described  in  his 
manuscript  treatise,  appears  to  have  been  merely  a  repetition  of 
those  of  his  predecessors,  De  Caus  and  the  Marquis  of  Worcester ; 
but  his  statement  is  curious  as  being  the  first  in  which  the  immense 
difference  between-  the  space  occupied  by  water  in  its  natural  state 
and  that  which  it  occupies  in  the  state  of  steam  is  numerically  de- 


JAMES  WATT.  281 

signaled.  The  latter,  he  says,  is  about  two  thousand  times  as 
great  as  the  former ;  which  is  not  far  from  a  correct  account  of 
the  expansive  force  that  steam  exerts  under  the  ordinary  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere.  One  measure  of  water,  it  is  found  in  such 
circumstances,  will  produce  about  seventeen  hundred  measures 
of  steam. 

The  next  person  whose  name  occurs  in  the  history  of  the  steam 
engine,  is  Denis  Papin,  a  native  of  France,  but  who  spent  the  part 
of  his  life  during  which  he  made  his  principal  pneumatic  experi- 
ments in  England.  Up  to  this  time,  the  reader  will  observe,  the 
steam  had  been  applied  directly  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  to 
raise  which,  in  the  form  of  a  jet,  by  such  pressure,  appears  to  have 
been  almost  the  only  object  contemplated  by  the  employment  of 
the  newly  discovered  power.  It  was  Papin  who  first  introduced  a 
piston  into  the  tube  or  cylinder  which  rose  from  the  boiler.  This 
contrivance,  which  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  common  sucking, 
pump,  is  merely,  as  the  reader  probably  knows,  a  block  fitted  to 
any  tube  or  longitudinal  cavity,  so  as  to  move  freely  up  and  down 
in  it,  yet  without  permitting  the  passage  of  any  other  substance 
between  itself  and  the  sides  of  the  tube.  To  this  block  a  rod  is 
generally  fixed  ;  and  it  may  also  have  a  hole  driven  through  it,  to 
be  guarded  by  a  valve,  opening  upwards  or  downwards,  according 
to  the  object  in  view.  Long  before  the  time  of  Papin  it  had  been 
proposed  to  raise  weights,  or  heavy  bodies  of  any  kind,  by  sus- 
pending them  to  one  extremity  of  a  handle  or  cross-beam  attached 
at  its  other  end  to  the  rod  of  a  piston  moving  in  this  manner  in  a 
hollow  cylinder,  and  the  descent  of  which,  in  order  to  produce  the 
elevation  of  the  weights,  was  to  be  effected  by  the  pressure  of  the 
superincumbent  atmosphere  after  the  counterbalancing  air  had  been 
by  some  means  or  other  withdrawn  from  below  it.  Otto  Guericke 
used  to  exhaust  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder,  in  such  an  appa- 
ratus, by  means  of  an  air-pump.  It  appeared  to  Papin  that  some 
other  method  might  be  found  of  effecting  this  end  more  expedi- 
tiously  and  \vith  less  labor.  First  he  tried  to  produce  the  requisite 
vacuum  by  the  explosion  of  a  small  quantity  of  gunpowder  in  the 
botfom  of  the  cylinder,  the  momentary  flame  occasioned  by  which 
he  thought  would  expel  the  air  through  a  valve  opening  upwards 
in  the  piston,  while  the  immediate  fall  of  the  valve,  on  the  action 
of  the  flame  being  spent,  would  prevent  its  re-intrusion.  But  he 
never  was  able  to  effect  a  very  complete  vacuum  by  this  method. 
He  then,  about  the  year  1690,  bethought  him  of  making  use  of 
steam  for  that  purpose.  This  vapour,  De  Caus  had  long  ago  re- 
marked, was  recondensed  and  restored  to  the  state  of  water  by 
cold  ;  but  up  to  this  time  the  attention  of  no  person  seems  to  have 


282  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

been  awakened  to  the  important  advantage  that  might  be  taken  of 
this  one  of  its  properties.  Papin  for  the  first  time  availed  himself 
of  it  in  his  lifting  machine,  to  produce  the  vacuum  he  wanted. 
Introducing  a  small  quantity  of  water  into  the  bottom  of  his  cylin- 
der, he  heated  it  by  a  fire  underneath,  till  it  boiled  and  gave  forth 
steam,  which,  by  its  powerful  expansion,  raised  the  piston  from  its 
original  position  in  contact  with  the  water,  to  a  considerable  height 
above  it,  even  in  opposition  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on 
its  other  side.  This  done,  he  then  removed  the  fire,  on  which  the 
steam  again  became  condensed  into  water,  and,  occupying  now 
about  the  seventeen  hundredth  part  of  its  former  dimensions,  left 
a  vacant  space  through  which  the  piston  was  carried  down  by  its 
own  gravitation  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  machine  thus  proposed  by  Papin  was  abundantly  defective 
in  the  subordinate  parts  of  its  mechanism,  and,  unimproved,  could 
not  have  operated  with  much  effect.  But,  imperfect  as  it  was,  it 
exemplified  two  new  principles  of  the  highest  importance,  neither 
of  which  appears  to  have  been  thought  of,  in  the  application  of  the 
power  of  steam,  before  his  time.  The  first  is  the  communication 
of  the  moving  force  of  that  agent  to  bodies  upon  which  it  cannot 
conveniently  act  directly,  by  means  of  the  piston  and  its  rod. 
The  second  is  the  deriving  of  the  moving  force  desired,  not  from 
the  expansion  of  steam,  but  from  its  other  equally  valuable  property 
of  condensibility  by  mere  exposure  to  cold.  Papin,  however,  it  is 
curious  enough,  afterwards  abandoned  his  piston  and  method  of 
condensation,  and  reverted  to  the  old  plan  of  making  the  steam  act 
directly  by  its  expansive  force  upon  the  water  to  be  raised.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  whether  he  ever  actually  erected  any  working 
engine  upon  either  of  these  constructions.  Indeed,  the  improve- 
ment of  the  steam  engine  could  scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  the 
principal  object  of  those  experiments  of  his  which,  nevertheless, 
contributed  so  greatly  to  that  result.  It  was,  in  fact,  as  we  have 
seen,  with  the  view  of  perfecting  a  machine  contrived  originally 
without  any  reference  to  the  application  of  steam,  that  he  was  first 
induced  to  have  recourse  to  the  powers  of  that  agent.  The  moving 
force  with  which  he  set  out  was  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere ; 
and  he  employed  steam  merely  as  a  means  of  enabling  that  other 
power  to  act.  Even  by  such  a  seemingly  subordinate  application, 
however,  of  the  new  element,  he  happily  discovered  and  bequeathed 
to  his  successors  the  secret  of  some  of  its  most  valuable  capa- 
bilities. 

We  may  here  conveniently  notice  another  ingenious  contrivance, 
of  essential  service  in  the  steam  engine,  for  which  we  are  also  in- 
debted to  Papin — we  mean  the  safety-valve.  This  is  merely  a  lid 


JAMES  WATT.  283 

or  stopper,  closing  an  aperture  in  the  boiler,  and  so  loaded  as  to 
resist  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam  up  to  a  certain  point,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  it  must  give  way  and  allow  free  vent  to  the 
pent-up  element,  long  before  it  can  have  acquired  sufficient  strength^ 
to  burst  the  boiler.  The  safety-valve,  however,  was  not  introduced 
into  the  steam  engine  either  by  Papin,  or  for  some  years  after  his 
time.  It  was  employed  by  him  only  in  the  apparatus  still  k 
by  the  name  of  his  digester,  a  contrivance  for  producing  a 
powerful  heat  in  cookery  and  chemical  preparations,  by  means: 
highly  concentrated  steam. 

We  now  come  to  the  engine  invented  by  Captain  Savery  in 
1698.  This  gentleman,  we  are  told,  having  one  day  drank  a  flask 
of  Florence  wine  at  a  tavern,  afterwards  threw  the  empty  flask 
upon  the  fire,  when  he  was  struck  by  perceiving  that  the  small 
quantity  of  liquid  still  left  in  it  very  soon  filled  it  with  steam,  under 
the  influence  of  the  heat.  Taking  it  up  again  while  thus  full  of 
vapor,  he  now  plunged  it,  with  the  mouth  downwards,  into  a  basin 
of  cold  water  which  happened  to  be  on  the  table  ;  by  which  means 
the  steam  being  instantly  concentrated,  a  vacuum  was  produced 
within  the  flask,  into  which  the  water  immediately  rushed  up  from 
the  basin.  According  to  another  version  of  the  story,  it  was  the 
accidental  circumstance  of  his  immersing  a  heated  tobacco-pipe 
into  water,  and  perceiving  the  water  immediately  rush  up  through 
the  tube,  on  the  concentration  by  the  cold  of  the  warm  and  thin 
air,  that  first  suggested  to  Saveiy  the  important  use  that  might  be 
made  of  steam,  or  any  other  gas  expanded  by  heat,  as  a  means 
of  creating  a  vacuum.  He  did  not,  however,  employ  steam  for 
this  purpose  in  the  same  manner  that  Papin  had  done.  Instead 
of  a  piston  moving  under  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  through 
the  vacuum  produced  by  the  concentration  of  the  steam,  he  availed 
himself  of  such  a  vacuum  merely  to  permit  the  rise  of  the  water 
into  it  from  the  well  or  mine  below,  exactly  as  in  the  common 
sucking-pump.  Having  thus  raised  the  water  to  the  level  of  the 
boiler,  he  afterwards  allowed  it  to  flow  into  another  vessel,  from 
whence  he  sent  it  to  a  greater  height  by  the  same  method  which 
had  been  many  years  before  employed  by  the  Marquis  of  Worces- 
ter,— namely,  by  making  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam  act  upon 
it  directly,  and  so  force  it  up  in  opposition  to  its  own  gravity  and. 
the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere. 

Savery  showed  much  ingenuity  and  practical  skill  in  contriving 
means  of  facilitating  and  improving  the  working  of  the  apparatus 
which  he  had  devised  upon  these  principles  ;  and  many  of  his  en- 
gines were  erected  for  supplying  gentlemen's  houses  with  water 
and  other  purposes,  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  ma- 

20 


284  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

chine  also  received  many  improvements  after  the  death  of  the 
original  inventor.  It  was  considerably  simplified,  in  particular, 
by  Dr.  Desaguliers,  about  the  year  1718  ;  and  this  gentleman  also 
contrived  a  method  of  concentrating  the  steam  by  the  injection  of 
a  small  current  of  cold  water  into  the  receiver,  instead  of  the  old 
method  employed  by  Savery,  of  dashing  the  water  over  the  outside 
of  the  vessel,  which  cooled  it  to  an  unnecessary  degree,  and  occa- 
sioned, therefore,  a  wasteful  expenditure  of  fuel.  It  was  Desagu- 
liers  who  first  introduced  the  safety-valve  into  the  steam  engine, 
although  Papin  had  previously  suggested  such  an  application  of  the 
contrivance.  Engines  upon  Savory's  principle  have  continued  to 
be  constructed,  down  to  our  own  times  ;  and  as  they  can  be  made 
at  a  comparatively  small  expense,  they  are  found  to  answer  very 
well  in  situations  where  water  has  to  be  raised  only  a  short  way. 
This  engine  is,  in  fact,  merely  a  combination  of  the  common 
sucking-pump,  (except  that  the  requisite  vacuum  is  produced  by 
the  condensation  of  steam  and  without  the  aid  of  a  piston,)  with 
the  contrivance  proposed  by  De  Caus  and  the  Marquis  of  Wor- 
cester for  the  application  of  the  expansive  force  of  steam ;  and, 
wherever  the  machine  can  be  economically  employed,  the  former 
part  of  it  is  that  which  operates  with  by  far  the  most  effect. 

Not  long  after  Savery  had  invented  his  engine,  Thomas  New- 
comen,  an  ironmonger,  and  John  Galley,  a  glazier,  both  of  Dart- 
mouth, in  Devonshire,  began  also  to  direct  their  attention  to  the 
employment  of  steam  as  a  mechanic  power.  Their  first  engine 
was  constructed  about  the  year  1711.  This  contrivance,  which  is 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Newcomen's  engine,  proceeded 
mainly  upon  the  principle  formerly  adopted  by  Papin,  but  subse- 
quently abandoned  both  by  him  and  those  who  immediately  fol- 
lowed him  in  the  cultivation  of  this  department  of  mechanics,  of 
making  the  moving  power  of  the  machinery  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere  acting  upon  a  piston,  so  as  to  carry  it  down  through  a 
vacuum  created  by  the  condensation  of  the  steam.  Newcomen's 
apparatus  is,  on  this  account,  often  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
the  Atmospheric  engine.  Its  inventors,  however,  instead  of  adopt- 
ing Papin's  clumsy  method  of  cooling  his  steam  by  the  removal  of 
the  fire,  employed,  in  the  first  instance,  the  expedient  of  pouring 
cold  water  on  the  containing  vessel,  as  Savery  had  done  before 
them,  though  without  being  aware,  it  is  said,  of  his  prior  claim  to 
the  improvement.  They  afterwards  exchanged  this  for  the  still 
better  method,  already  described  as  introduced  by  Desaguliers  into 
Savery's  engine,  of  injecting  a  stream  of  water  into  the  cylinder, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  them  by  the  accident  of 
some  water  having  found  admission  to  the  steam  through  a  hole 


JAMES  WATT.  285 

which  happened  to  have  worn  itself  in  the  piston.  This  engine 
of  Newcomen,  which,  in  the  course  of  a  very  few  years  after  its 
invention,  was  brought  to  as  high  a  state  of  perfection  as  the  prin- 
ciple seems  to  admit  of,  afforded  the  first  important  exemplifica- 
tion of  the  value  of  steam  in  mechanics.  Savery's,  the  only  other 
practical  contrivance  which  had  been  proposed,  had  been  found 
quite  inadequate  to  the  raising  of  water  from  any  considerable 
depth,  its  principal  power,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  lying, 
in  fact,  in  the  part  of  it  which  acted  as  a  sucking-pump,  and  by 
which,  as  such,  water  could  only  be  raised  till  its  column  was  of 
equal  weight  with  a  column  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  same  base. 
It  was  nearly  useless,  therefore,  as  an  apparatus  for  pumping  up 
water  from  mines ;  the  grand  object  for  which  a  moving  force  of 
extraordinary  power  was  at  this  time  in  demand.  But  here  New- 
comets  engine  proved  of  essential  service.  Many  mines  that  had 
long  remained  unwrought,  were,  immediately  after  its  invention, 
again  rendered  accessible,  and  gradually  excavated  to  great  depths  ; 
while  others  were  opened,  and  their  treasures  sought  after  with 
equal  success,  which  but  for  its  assistance  could  never  have  been 
attempted.  It  was  applied  also  to  various  other  important  pur- 
poses. 

Newcomen's  engine,  however,  notwithstanding  its  usefulness, 
especially  in  cases  where  no  other  known  power  could  be  applied, 
was  still  in  some  respects  a  very  defective  contrivance,  and  by  no 
means  adapted  to  secure  the  complete  command  of  the  energies 
of  steam.  The  great  waste  of  fuel,  in  particular,  which  was  still 
occasioned  by  the  degree  to  which  the  cylinder  was  cooled  after 
every  stroke  of  the  piston,  from  the  cold  water  injected  into  it, 
rendered  it  scarcely  any  saving  of  expense  to  employ  this  engine 
in  circumstances  where  animal  power  was  available.  Its  whole 
force  too,  the  reader  will  observe,  as  a  moving  power,  was  limited 
to  what  could  be  obtained  by  atmospheric  pressure  alone,  which, 
even  could  the  vacuum  under  the  piston  have  been  rendered  quite 
perfect,  and  all  obstructions  from  friction  annihilated,  could  only 
have  amounted  to  about  fifteen  pounds  for  every  square-inch  of 
the  surface  of  the  piston.  The  expansive  force  of  steam  was 
not,  in  fact,  at  all  employed  in  this  contrivance  as  a  moving 
power  ;  could  the  vacuum  necessary  to  permit  the  descent  of  the 
piston  have  been  as  expeditiously  and  conveniently  produced  by 
any  other  agency,  that  of  steam  might  have  been  dispensed  with 
altogether.  An  air-pump,  for  instance,  attached  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  cylinder,  as  originally  proposed  by  Otto  Guericke,  might 
have  rendered  all  the  service  which  steam  was  here  called  upon 
to  perform  ;  and  in  that  case,  this  element,  with  the  fuel  by  which 


286  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

it  was  generated,  might  have  been  dispensed  with,  and  the  machine 
would  not  have  been  a  steam  engine  at  all.  This  view  of  the 
matter  may,  in  some  degree,  account  for  the  complete  neglect  of 
steam  as  a  moving  power  which  so  long  prevailed  after  Newco- 
men's  engine  was  brought  into  use,  notwithstanding  the  proofs  of 
its  capabiiities  in  that  character  which  had  been  afforded  by  the 
attempts  of  the  earlier  speculators.  It  was  now  regarded  simply 
as  affording  the  easiest  means  of  obtaining  a  ready  vacuum,  in 
consequence  of  its  property  of  rapid  condensation  on  the  applica- 
tion of  cold  :  its  other  property  of  extraordinary  expansion,  which 
had  first  attracted  to  it  the  attention  of  mechanicians,  and  pre- 
sented in  reality  a  much  more  obvious  application  of  it  as  a  me- 
chanical agent,  had  been  entirely  neglected.  The  only  improve- 
ments of  the  engine  which  were  attempted  or  thought  of  were 
such  as  referred  to  what  may  be  called  its  subordinate  mechanism, 
that  is  to  say,  the  contrivances  for  facilitating  the  alternate  sup- 
plies of  the  steam  and  the  water  on  which  its  action  depended ; 
and  after  Mr.  Beighton  had,  about  the  year  1718,  made  the  ma- 
chine itself  shut  and  open  the  cocks  by  which  these  supplies  were 
regulated,  instead  of  having  that  service  performed  as  at  first  by 
an  attendant,  there  remained  little  more  to  be  done  even  in  this 
department.  The  steam  might  be  applied  with  more  ease  and 
readiness,  but  not  with  any  augmentation  of  effect ;  the  power  of 
the  engine  could  be  increased  only  by  a  more  plentiful  application 
of  atmospheric  pressure.  It  was  with  propriety,  therefore,  that 
Newcomen's  invention  was  called,  not  a  steam,  but  an  atmospheric, 
engine. 

For  half  a  century,  accordingly,  after  the  improvements  intro~ 
duced  by  Beighton,  who  may  be  considered  as  the  perfecter  of 
this  engine,  no  farther  progress  worth  mentioning  was  made  in 
the  application  of  steam  as  an  agent  in  mechanics.  The  engine 
itself  was  more  and  more  extensively  employed,  notwithstanding 
its  defects  ;  but  no  better  method  was  proposed  of  calling  into 
exercise  the  stupendous  powers  of  the  element,  which,  by  means 
of  only  one  of  its  remarkable  properties,  was  here  shown  to  be 
capable  of  rendering  such  valuable  service.  Our  knowledge  of 
what  might  be  done  by  steam  was  in  this  state  when  the  subject 
at  last  happily  attracted  the  attention  of  Mr.  Watt. 

JAMES  WATT  was  born  at  Greenock,  on  the  19th  of  January, 
1736.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  also  one  of  the  magis- 
trates of  that  town.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education 
in  his  native  place ;  but  his  health  being  even  then  extremely 
delicate,  as  it  continued  to  be  to  the  end  of  his  life,  his  attend- 
ance at  school  was  not  always  very  regular.  He  amply  made  up, 


JAMES   WATT.  287 

however,  for  what  he  lost  in  this  way  by  the  diligence  with  which 
he  pursued  his  studies  at  home,  where  without  any  assistance  he 
succeeded  at  a  very  early  age  in  making  considerable  proficiency 
in  various  branches  of  knowledge.  Even  at  this  time  his  favorite 
study  is  said  to  have  been  mechanical  science,  to  a  love  of  which 
he  was  probably  in  some  degree  led  by  the  example  of  his  grand- 
father  and  his  uncle,  both  of  whom  had  been  teachers  of  the 
mathematics,  and  had  left  a  considerable  reputation  for  learning 
and  ability  in  that  department.  Young  Watt,  however,  was  not 
indebted  to  any  instructions  of  theirs  for  his  own  acquirements 
in  science,  the  former  having  died  two  years  before,  and  the  latter 
the  year  after,  he  was  born.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  sent 
to  London  to  be  apprenticed  to  a  maker  of  mathematical  instru- 
ments ;  but  in  little  more  than  a  year  the  state  of  his  health  forced 
him  to  return  to  Scotland ;  and  he  never  received  any  farther  in- 
struction in  his  profession,  A  year  or  two  after  this,  however,  a 
visit  which  he  paid  to  some  relations  in  Glasgow  suggested  to  him 
the  plan  of  attempting  to  establish  himself  in  that  city  in  the  line 
for  which  he  had  been  educated.  In  1757,  accordingly,  he  re* 
moved  thither,  and  was  immediately  appointed  mathematical  in- 
strument maker  to  the  College.  In  this  situation  he  remained  for 
some  years,  during  which,  notwithstanding  almost  constant  ill- 
health,  he  continued  both  to  prosecute  his  profession,  and  to  labor 
in  the  general  cultivation  of  his  mind,  with  extraordinary  ardor 
and  perseverance.  Here  also  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  inti- 
macy of  several  distinguished  persons  who  were  then  members 
of  the  University,  especially  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Black,  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  principle  of  latent  heat,  and  Mr.  (afterwards  Dr.) 
John  Robison,  so  well  known  by  his  treatises  on  mechanical 
science,  who  was  then  a  student  and  about  the  same  age  with 
himself.  Honorable,  however,  as  his  present  appointment  was, 
and  important  as  were  many  of  the  advantages  to  which  it  in- 
troduced him,  he  probably  did  not  find  it  a  very  lucrative  one  ; 
and  therefore,  in  1763,  when  about  to  marry,  he  removed  from 
his  apartments  in  the  University  to  a  house  in  the  city,  and  entered 
upon  the  profession  of  a  general  engineer. 

For  this  his  genius  and  scientific  attainments  admirably  qualified 
him.  Accordingly,  he  soon  acquired  a  high  reputation,  and  was 
extensively  employed  in  making  surveys  and  estimates  for  canals, 
harbors,  bridges,  and  other  public  works.  His  advice  and  assist- 
ance indeed  were  sought  for  in  almost  all  the  important  improve- 
ments of  this  description  which  were  now  undertaken  or  proposed 
in  his  native  country.  But  another  pursuit,  in  which  he  had  been 
for  some  time  privately  engaged,  was  destined  ere  long  to  with- 


288  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

draw  him  from  this  line  of  exertion,  and  to  occupy  his  whole 
mind  with  an  object  still  more  worthy  of  its  extraordinary  powers. 

While  yet  residing  in  the  College  his  attention  had  been  directed 
to  the  employment  of  steam  as  a  mechanical  agent  by  some  spe- 
culations of  his  friend  Mr.  Robison,  with  regard  to  the  practica- 
bility of  applying  it  to  the  movement  of  wheel-carriages  ;  and  he 
had  also  himself  made  some  experiments  with  Papin^  digester, 
with  the  view  of  ascertaining  its  expansive  force.  He  had  not 
prosecuted  the  inquiry,  however,  so  far  as  to  have  arrived  at  any 
determinate  result,  when,  in  the  winter  of  1763-4,  a  small  model 
of  Newcomeirs  engine  was  sent  to  him  by  the  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  to  be  repaired,  and  fitted  for  exhibition  in  the  class. 
The  examination  of  this  model  set  Watt  upon  thinking  anew,  and 
with  more  interest  than  ever,  on  the  powers  of  steam. 

The  first  thing  that  attracted  his  attention  about  the  machine 
before  him,  the  cylinder  of  which  was  only  of  two  inches  diameter, 
while  the  piston  descended  through  six  inches,  was  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  boiler,  although  proportionably  a  good  deal  larger 
than  in  the  working  engines,  to  supply  the  requisite  quantity  of 
steam  for  the  creation  of  the  vacuum.  In  order  to  remedy  this 
defect  he  was  obliged,  in  repairing  the  model,  to  diminish  the 
column  of  water  to  be  raised  ;  in  other  words,  to  give  the  piston 
less  to  do,  in  compensation  for  its  having  to  descend,  not  through 
a  perfect  vacuum,  but  in  opposition  to  a  considerable  residue  of 
undisplaced  air.  He  also  soon  discovered  the  reason  why  in  this 
instance  the  steam  sent  up  from  the  boiler  was  not  sufficient  to 
fill  the  cylinder.  In  the  first  place,  this  containing  vessel,  being 
made,  not  of  cast-iron,  as  in  the  larger  engines,  but  of  brass, 
abstracted  more  of  the  heat  from  the  steam,  and  so  weakened  its 
expansion ;  and  secondly,  it  exposed  a  much  larger  surface  to  the 
steam,  in  proportion  to  its  capacity,  than  the  cylinders  of  the 
larger  engines  did,  and  this  operated  still  more  strongly  to  produce 
the  same  effect.  Led  by  the  former  of  these  considerations,  he 
made  some  experiments  in  the  first  instance  with  the  view  of  dis- 
covering some  other  material  whereof  to  form  the  cylinder  of  the 
engine  which  should  be  less  objectionable  than  either  brass  or 
cast-iron  ;  and  he  proposed  to  substitute  wood,  soaked  in  oil,  and 
baked  dry.  But  his  speculations  soon  took  a  much  wider  scope  ; 
and,  struck  with  the  radical  imperfections  of  the  atmospheric 
engine,  he  began  to  turn  in  his  mind  the  possibility  of  employing 
steam  in  mechanics,  in  some  new  manner  which  should  enable  it 
to  operate  v/ith  much  more  powerful  effect.  This  idea  having  got 
possession  of  him,  he  engaged  in  an  extensive  course  of  experi- 
ments, for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  as  many  facts  as  possible 


JAMES    WATT.  289 

with  regard  to  the  properties  of  steam  ;  and  the  pains  he  took  in 
this  investigation  were  rewarded  with  several  valuable  discoveries. 
The  rapidity  with  which  water  evaporates,  he  found,  for  instance, 
depended  simply  upon  the  quantity  of  heat  which  was  made  to 
enter  it ;  and  this  again  on  the  extent  of  the  surface  exposed  to 
the  fire.  He  also  ascertained  the  quantity  of  coals  necessary  for 
the  evaporation  of  any  given  quantity  of  water,  the  heat  at  which 
water  boils  under  various  pressures,  and  many  other  particulars 
of  a  similar  kind  which  had  never  before  been  accurately  de- 
termined. 

Thus  prepared  by  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  properties  of 
the  agent  with  which  he  had  to  work,  he  next  proceeded  to  take 
into  consideration,  with  a  view  to  their  amendment,  what  he 
deemed  the  two  grand  defects  of  Newcomen's  engine.  The  first 
of  these  was  the  necessity  arising  from  the  method  employed  to 
concentrate  the  steam,  of  cooling  the  cylinder,  before  every  stroke 
of  the  piston,  by  the  water  injected  into  it.  On  this  account,  a 
much  more  powerful  application  of  heat  than  would  otherwise 
have  been  requisite  was  demanded  for  the  purpose  of  again  heat- 
ing that  vessel  when  it  was  to  be  refilled  with  steam.  In  fact, 
Watt  ascertained  that  there  was  thus  occasioned,  in  the  feeding 
of  the  machine,  a  waste  of  not  less  than  three  fourths  of  the 
whole  fuel  employed.  If  the  cylinder,  instead  of  being  thus 
cooled  for  every  stroke  of  the  piston,  could  be  kept  permanently 
hot,  a  fourth  part  of  the  heat  which  had  been  hitherto  applied 
would  be  found  to  be  sufficient  to  produce  steam  enough  to  fill  it. 
How,  then,  was  this  desideratum  to  be  attained  ?  De  Caus  had 
proposed  to  effect  the  condensation  of  the  steam  by  actually  re- 
moving the  furnace  from  under  the  boiler  before  every  stroke  of 
the  piston  ;  but  this,  in  a  working  engine,  evidently  would  have 
been  found  quite  impracticable.  Savery,  the  first  who  really  con- 
structed a  working  engine,  and  whose  arrangements,  as  we  have 
already  remarked,  all  showed  a  very  superior  ingenuity,  employed 
the  method  of  throwing  cold  water  over  the  outside  of  the  vessel 
containing  his  steam — a  perfectly  manageable  process,  but  at  the 
same  time  a  very  wasteful  one ;  inasmuch  as  every  time  it  was 
repeated,  it  cooled  not  only  the  steam,  but  the  vessel  also,  which, 
therefore,  had  again  to  be  heated,  by  a  large  expenditure  of  fuel, 
before  the  steam  could  be  reproduced.  Newcomen's  method  of 
injecting  the  water  into  the  cylinder  was  a  considerable  improve- 
ment on  this  ;  but  it  was  still  objectionable  on  the  same  ground, 
though  not  to  the  same  degree  ;  it  still  cooled  not  only  the- steam, 
on  which  it  was  desired  to  produce  that  effect,  but  also  the  cylin- 
der itself,  which,  as  the  vessel  in  which  more  steam  was  to  be 


290  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

immediately  manufactured,  it  was  so  important  to  keep  hot.  It 
was  also  a  very  serious  objection  to  this  last  mentioned  plan,  thai 
the  injected  water  itself,  from  the  heat  of  the  place  into  which  it 
was  thrown,  was  very  apt  to  be  partly  converted  into  steam  ;  and 
the  more  cold  water  was  used,  the  more  considerable  did  this 
creation  of  new  steam  become.  In  fact,  in  the  best  of  Newco- 
men's  engines,  the  perfection  of  the  vacuum  was  so  greatly  im- 
paired from  this  cause,  that  the  resistance  experienced  by  the 
piston  in  its  descent  was  found  to  amount  to  about  a  fourth  part 
of  the  whole  atmospheric  pressure  by  which  it  was  carried  down, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  working  power  of  the  machine  was  thereby 
diminished  one  fourth. 

After  reflecting  for  some  time  upon  all  this,  it  at  last  occurred 
to  Watt  to  consider  whether  it  might  not  be  possible,  instead  of 
continuing  to  condense  the  steam  in  the  cylinder,  to  contrive  a 
method  of  drawing  it  off,  to  undergo  that  operation  in  some  other 
vessel.  This  fortunate  idea  having  presented  itself  to  his  thoughts, 
it  was  not  very  long  before  his  ingenuity  also  suggested  to  him 
the  means  of  realizing  it.  In  the  course  of  one  or  two  days,  ac- 
cording to  his -own  account,  he  had  all  the  necessary  apparatus 
arranged  in  his  mind.  The  plan  which  he  devised,  indeed,  was 
an  extremely  simple  one,  and  on  that  account  the  more  beautiful. 
He  proposed  to  establish  a  communication  by  an  open  pipe  be- 
tween the  cylinder  and  another  vessel,  the  consequence  of  which 
evidently  would  be,  that  when  the  steam  was  admitted  into  the 
former,  it  would  flow  into  the  latter  so  as  to  fill  it  also.  If  then 
the  portion  in  this  latter  vessel  only  should  be  subjected  to  a  con- 
densing process,  by  being  brought  into  contact  with  cold  water, 
or  any  other  convenient  means,  what  would  follow  ?  Why,  a 
vacuum  would  be  produced  here — Into  that,  as  a  vent,  more  steam 
would  immediately  rush  from  the  cylinder — that  likewise  would 
be  condensed — and  so  the  process  would  go  on  till  all  the  steam 
had  left  the  cylinder,  and  a  perfect  vacuum  had  been  effected  in 
that  vessel,  without  so  much  as  a  drop  of  cold  water  having 
touched  or  entered  it.  The  separate  vessel  alone,  or  the  Con- 
denser, as  Watt  called  it,  would  be  cooled  by  the  water  used  to 
condense  the  steam — and  that,  instead  of  being  an  evil,  manifestly 
tended  to  promote  and  quicken  the  condensation.  When  Watt 
reduced  these  views  to  the  test  of  experiment,  he  found  the  result 
to  answer  his  most  sanguine  expectations.  The  cylinder,  al- 
though emptied  of  its  steam  for  every  stroke  of  the  piston  as 
before,  was  now  constantly  kept  at  the  same  temperature  with  the 
steam  (or  212°  Fahrenheit;)  and  the  consequence  was,  that  one 
fourth  of  the  fuel  formerly  required  sufficed  to  feed  the  engine. 


JAMES    WATT.  291 

But  besides  this  most  important  saving  in  the  expense  of  main- 
taining the  engine,  its  power  was  greatly  increased  by  the  more 
perfect  vacuum  produced  by  the  new  construction,  in  which  the 
condensing  water,  being  no  longer  admitted  within  the  cylinder, 
could  not,  as  before,  create  new  steam  there  while  displacing  the 
old.  The  first  method  which  Watt  adopted  of  cooling  the  steam 
in  the  condenser,  was  to  keep  that  vessel  surrounded  by  cold 
water — considering  it  as  an  objection  to  the  admission  of  the  water 
into  its  interior,  that  it  might  be  difficult  in  that  case  to  convey  it 
away  as  fast  as  it  would  accumulate.  But  he  found  that  the  con- 
densation was  not  effected  in  this  manner  with  so  much  rapidity 
as  was  desirable.  It  was  necessary  for  him,  too,  at  any  rate  to 
employ  a  pump  attached  to  the  condenser,  in  order  to  draw  off 
both  the  small  quantity  of  water  deposited  by  the  cooled  steam, 
and  the  air  unavoidably  introduced  by  the  same  element — either 
of  which,  if  allowed  to  accumulate,  would  have  impaired  the  per- 
fect vacuum  necessary  to  attract  the  steam  from  the  cylinder. 
He  therefore  determined  eventually  to  admit  also  the  additional 
quantity  of  water  required  for  the  business  of  condensation,  and 
merely  to  employ  a  larger  and  more  powerful  pump  to  carry  off 
the  whole. 

Such,  then,  was  the  remedy  by  which  the  genius  of  this  great 
inventor  effectually  cured  the  first  and  most  serious  defect  of  the 
old  apparatus.  In  carrying  his  ideas  into  execution,  he  encoun- 
tered, as  was  to  be  expected,  many  difficulties,  arising  principally 
from  the  impossibility  of  realizing  theoretical  perfection  of  struc- 
ture with  such  materials  as  human  art  is  obliged  to  work  with ; 
but  his  ingenuity  and  perseverance  overcame  every  obstacle. 
One  of  the  things  which  cost  him  the  greatest  trouble  was,  how  to 
fit  the  piston  so  exactly  to  the  cylinder  as  without  affecting  the 
freedom  of  its  motion,  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  air  between 
the  two.  In  the  old  engine  this  end  had  been  attained  by  cover- 
ing the  piston  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  the  dripping  down 
of  which  into  the  space  below,  where  it  merely  mixed  with  the 
stream  introduced  to  effect  the  condensation,  was  of  little  or  no 
consequence.  But  in  the  new  construction,  the  superiority  of 
which  consisted  in  keeping  this  receptacle  for  the  steam  always 
both  hot  and  dry,  such  an  effusion  of  moisture,  although  only  in 
very  small  quantities,  would  have  occasioned  material  inconve- 
nience. The  air  alone,  besides,  which  in  the  old  engine  followed 
the  piston  in  its  descent,  acted  with  considerable  effect  in  cooling 
the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder.  His  attempts  to  overcome  this 
difficulty,  while  'they  succeeded  in  that  object,  conducted  Watt 
also  to  another  improvement,  which  effected  the  complete  removal 


292  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

of  what  we  have  called  the  second  radical  imperfection  of  New- 
corners  engine,  namely,  its  non-employment,  for  a  moving  power, 
of  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam.  The  effectual  way,  it  oc- 
curred to  him,  of  preventing  any  air  from  escaping  into  the  part 
of  the  cylinder  below  the  piston,  would  be  to  dispense  with  the  use 
of  that  element  above  the  piston,  and  to  substitute  there  likewise 
the  same  contrivance  as  below,  of  alternate  steam  and  vacuum. 
This  was  of  course  to  be  accomplished  by  merely  opening  com- 
munications from  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  to  the  boiler  on 
the  one  hand,  arid  the  condenser  on  the  other,  and  forming  it  at 
the  same  time  into  an  air-tight  chamber,  by  means  of  a  cover, 
with  only  a  hole  in  it  to  admit  the  rod  or  shank  of  the  piston, 
which  might  besides,  without  impeding  its  freedom  of  action,  be 
padded  with  hemp,  the  more  completely  to  exclude  the  air.  It 
was  so  contrived,  accordingly,  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the 
cocks  and  the  machinery  connected  with  them,  that,  while  there 
was  a  vacuum  in  one  end  of  the  cylinder,  there  should  be  an  ad- 
mission of  steam  into  the  other ;  and  the  steam  so  admitted  now 
served,  not  only,  by  its  susceptibility  of  sudden  condensation,  to 
create  the  vacuum,  but  also,  by  its  expansive  force,  to  impel  the 
piston.  Steam,  in  fact,  was  now  restored  to  be,  what  it  had  been 
in  the  early  attempts  to  use  it  as  a  mechanical  agent,  the  moving 
power  of  the  engine  ;  but  its  efficiency  in  this  capacity  was  for  the 
first  time  both  taken  full  advantage  of,  by  means  of  contrivances 
properly  arranged  for  that  end,  and  combined  with,  and  aided  by, 
its  other  equally  valuable  property  which  had  alone  been  called 
into  action  in  the  more  recent  machines. 

These  were  the  great  improvements  which  Watt  introduced  in 
what  may  be  called  the  principle  of  the  steam  engine,  or,  in  other 
words,  in  the  manner  of  using  and  applying  the  steam.  They 
constitute,  therefore,  the  grounds  of  his  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the 
true  author  of  the  conquest  that  has  at  last  been  obtained  by  man 
over  this  powerful  element.  But  original  and  comprehensive  as 
were  the  views  out  of  which  these  fundamental  inventions  arose, 
the  exquisite  and  inexhaustible  ingenuity  which  the  engine,  as 
finally  perfected  by  him,  displays  in  every  part  of  its  subordinate 
mechanism,  is  calculated  to  strike  us  perhaps  with  scarcely  less 
admiration.  It  forms  undoubtedly  the  best  exemplification  that 
has  ever  been  afforded  of  the  number  and  diversity  of  services 
which  a  piece  of  machinery  may  be  made  to  render  to  itself  by 
means  solely  of  the  various  application  of  its  first  moving  power, 
when  that  has  once  been  called  into  action.  Of  these  contrivances, 
however,  we  can  only  notice  one  or  two,  by  way  of  specimen. 
Perhaps  the  most  singular  is  that  called  the  governor.  This  con- 


JAMES  WATT.  293 

sists  of  an  upright  spindle,  which  is  kept  constantly  turning,  by 
being  connected  with  a  certain  part  of  the  machinery,  and  from 
which  two  balls  are  suspended  in  opposite  directions  by  rods, 
attached  by  joints,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the  legs  of  a  pair 
tongs.  As  long  as  the  motion  of  the  engine  is  uniform,  that  of 
the  spindle  is  so  likewise,  and  the  balls  continue  steadily  revolving 
at  the  same  distance  from  each  other.  But  as  soon  as  any  altera- 
tion in  the  action  of  the  piston  takes  place,  the  balls,  if  it  has  be- 
come more  rapid,  fly  farther  apart  under  the  influence  of  the  in- 
creased centrifugal  force  which  actuates  them — or  approach 
nearer  to  each  other  in  the  opposite  circumstances.  This  alone 
would  have  served  to  indicate  the  state  of  matters  to  the  eye  ;  but 
Watt  was  not  to  be  satisfied.  He  connected  the  rods  with  a  valve 
in  the  tube  by  which  the  steam  is  admitted  to  the  cylinder  from 
the  boiler,  in  such  a  way  that,  as  they  retreat  from  each  other, 
they  gradually  narrow  the  opening  which  is  so  guarded,  or  en- 
large it  as  they  tend  to  collapse ;  thus  diminishing  the  supply  of 
steam  when  the  engine  is  going  too  fast,  and,  when  it  is  not  going 
fast  enough,  enabling  it  to  regain  its  proper  speed  by  allowing  it 
an  increase  of  aliment.  Again,  the  constant  supply  of  a  suffi- 
ciency of  water  to  the  boiler  is  secured  by  an  equally  simple  pro- 
vision, namely,  by  a  float  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
which,  as  soon  as  it  is  carried  down  by  the  consumption  of  the 
water  to  a  certain  point,  opens  a  valve  and  admits  more.  And  so 
on  through  all  the  different  parts  of  the  apparatus,  the  various 
wonders  of  which  cannot  be  better  summed  up  than  in  the  forcible 
and  graphic  language  of  a  recent  writer  : — "  In  the  present  per- 
fect state  of  the  engine,  it  appears  a  thing  almost  endowed  with 
intelligence.  It  regulates  with  perfect  accuracy  and  uniformity 
the  number  of  its  strokes  in  a  given  time,  counting  or  recording 
them  moreover,  to  tell  how  much  work  it  has  done,  as  a  clock 
records  the  beats  of  its  pendulum ;  it  regulates  the  quantity  of 
steam  admitted  to  work  ;  the  briskness  of  the  fire ;  the  supply  of 
water  to  the  boiler ;  the  supply  of  coals  to  the  fire  ;  it  opens  and 
shuts  its  valves  with  absolute  precision  as  to  time  and  manner ;  it 
oils  its  joints ;  it  takes  out  any  air  which  may  accidentally  enter 
into  parts  which  should  be  vacuous ;  and  when  any  thing  goes 
wrong  which  it  cannot  of  itself  rectify,  it  warns  its  attendants  by 
ringing  a  bell ;  yet  with  all  these  talents  and  qualities,  and  even 
when  exerting  the  power  of  six  hundred  horses,  it  is  obedient  to 
the  hand  of  a  child  ;  its  aliment  is  coal,  wood,  charcoal,  or  other 
combustible, — it  consumes  none  while  idle, — it  never  tires,  and 
wants  no  sleep ;  it  is  not  subject  to  malady  when  originally  well 
made,  and  only  refuses  to  work  when  worn  out  with  age ;  it  is 


294  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

equally  active  in  all  climates,  and  will  do  work  of  any  kind ;  it  is 
a  water-pumper,  a  miner,  a  sailor,  a  cotton-spinner,  a  weaver,  a 
blacksmith,  a  miller,  &c.  &c. ;  and  a  small  engine,  in  the  charac- 
ter of  a  steam  pony,  may  be  seen  dragging  after  it,  on  a  railroad, 
a  hundred  tons  of  merchandise,  or  a  regiment  of  soldiers,  with 
greater  speed  than  that  of  our  fleetest  coaches.  It  is  the  king  of 
machines,  and  a  permanent  realization  of  the  Genii  of  eastern 
fable,  whose  supernatural  powers  were  occasionally  at  the  com- 
mand  of  man." 

In  addition  to  those  difficulties  which  his  unrivalled  mechanical 
ingenuity  enabled  him  to  surmount,  Watt,  notwithstanding  the 
merit  of  his  inventions,  had  to  contend  for  some  time  with  others 
of  a  different  nature,  in  his  attempts  to  reduce  them  to  practice. 
He  had  no  pecuniary  resources  of  his  own,  and  was  at  first  without 
any  friend  willing  to  run  the  risk  of  the  outlay  necessary  for  an 
experiment  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale.  At  last  he  applied  to  Dr. 
Roebuck,  an  ingenious  and  spirited  speculator,  who  had  just  esta. 
Wished  the  Carron  iron-works,  not  far  from  Glasgow,  and  held 
also  at  this  time  a  lease  of  the  extensive  coal-works  at  Kinneal,  the 
property  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  Dr.  Roebuck  agreed  to  ad- 
vance the  requisite  funds  on  having  two  thirds  of  the  profits  made 
over  to  him ;  and  upon  this  Mr.  Watt  took  out  his  first  patent  in 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1769.  An  engine  with  a  cylinder  of 
eighteen  inches  diameter  was  soon  after  erected  at  Kinneal ;  and 
although,  as  a  first  experiment,  it  was  necessarily  in  some  respects 
of  defective  construction,  its  working  completely  demonstrated  the 
great  value  of  Watt's  improvements.  But  Dr.  Roebuck,  whose 
undertakings  were  very  numerous  and  various,  in  no  long  time 
after  forming  this  connection,  found  himself  involved  in  such  pecu- 
niary difficulties,  as  to  put  it  out  of  his  power  to  make  any  farther 
advances  in  prosecution  of  its  object.  On  this,  Watt  employed 
himself  for  some  years  almost  entirely  to  the  ordinary  work  of  his 
profession  as  a  civil  engineer ;  but  at  last,  about  the  year  1774, 
when  all  hopes  of  any  farther  assistance  from  Dr.  Roebuck  were 
at  an  end,  he  resolved  to  close  with  a  proposal  which  had  been 
made  to  him  through  his  friend  Dr.  Small,  of  Birmingham,  that  he 
should  remove  to  that  town,  and  enter  into  partnership  with  the 
eminent  hardware  manufacturer,  Mr.  Boulton,  whose  extensive 
establishment  at  Soho  had  already  become  famous  over  Europe, 
and  procured  for  England  an  unrivalled  reputation  for  the  arts 
there  carried  on.  Accordingly,  an  arrangement  having  been  made 
with  Dr.  Roebuck,  by  which  his  share  of  the  patent  was  transferred 
to  Mr.  Boulton,  the  firm  of  Boulton  and  Watt  commenced  the 
business  of  making  steam  engines  in  the  year  1775. 


JAMES  WATT.  295 

Mr.  Watt  now  obtained  from  parliament  an  extension  of  his 
patent  for  twenty-five  years  from  this  date,  in  consideration  of  the 
acknowledged  national  importance  of  his  inventions.  The  first 
thing  which  he  and  his  partner  did,  was  to  erect  an  engine  at  Soho, 
which  they  invited  all  persons  interested  in  such  machines  to  in- 
spect. They  then  proposed  to  erect  similar  engines  wherever 
required,  on  the  veiy  liberal  principle  of  receiving  as  payment  for 
each,  -only  one  third  of  the  saving  in  fuel  which  it  should  effect,  as 
compared  with  one  of  the  old  construction.  As  this  saving,  how- 
ever, had  been  found  to  amount  in  the  whole  to  fully  three  fourths 
of  all  the  fuel  that  had  been  wont  to  be  employed,  the  revenue  thus 
accruing  to  the  patentees  became  very  great  after  their  engines 
were  extensively  adopted.  This  they  very  soon  were,  especially 
in  Cornwall,  where  the  numerous  mines  afforded  a  vast  field  for 
the  employment  of  the  new  power,  partly  in  continuing  or  com- 
mencing works  which  only  an  economized  expenditure  could  make 
profitable,  and  often  also  in  labors  which  the  old  engine  was  alto- 
gether inadequate  to  attempt. 

But  the  draining  of  mines  was  only  one  of  many  applications  of 
the  steam  power  now  at  his  command  which  Watt  contemplated, 
and  in  course  of  time  accomplished.  During  the  whole  twenty- 
five  years,  indeed,  over  which  his  renewed  patent  extended,  the 
perfecting  of  his  invention  was  his  chief  occupation  ;  and,  notwith- 
standing a  delicate  state  of  health,  and  the  depressing  affliction  of 
severe  headaches  to  which  he  was  extremely  subject,  he  continued 
throughout  this  period  to  persevere  with  unwearied  diligence  in 
adding  new  improvements  to  -the  mechanism  of  the  engine,  and 
devising  the  means  of  applying  it  to  new  purposes  of  usefulness. 
He  devoted,  in  particular,  the  exertions  of  many  years  to  the  con- 
triving of  the  best  methods  of  making  the  action  of  the  piston  com- 
municate a  rotary  motion  in  various  circumstances  ;  and  between 
the  years  1781  and  1785  he  took  out  four  different  patents  for  in- 
ventions having  this  object  in  view.  In  the  midst  of  these  scientific 
labors,  too,  his  attention  was  much  distracted  by  attempts  which 
were  made  in  several  quarters  to  pirate  his  improvements,  and  the 
consequent  necessity  of  defending  his  rights  in  a  series  of  actions, 
which,  notwithstanding  successive  verdicts  in  his  favor,  did  not 
terminate  till  the  year  1799,  when  the  validity  of  his  claims  was 
finally  confirmed  by  the  unanimous  decision  of  the  Judges  of  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench. 

Wattes  inexhaustible  ingenuity  displayed  itself  in  various  other 
contrivances  besides  those  which  make  part  of  his  steam  engine. 
An  apparatus  for  copying  letters  and  other  writings,  now  in  exten- 
sive use ;  a  method  of  heating  houses  by  steam  ;  a  new  composi- 

21 


296  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

tion,  for  the  purposes  of  sculpture,  having  the  transparency  and 
nearly  the  hardness  of  marble ;  a  machine  for  multiplying  copies 
of  busts  and  other  performances  in  carving  or  statuary, — are 
enumerated  among  his  minor  inventions.  But  it  is  his  steam- 
engine  that  forms  the  great  monument  of  his  genius,  and  that  has 
conferred  upon  his  name  its  imperishable  renown.  This  invention 
has  already  gone  far  to  revolutionize  the  whole  domain  of  human 
industry ;  and  almost  every  year  is  adding  to  its  power  and  its 
conquests.  In  our  manufactures,  our  arts,  our  commerce,  our 
social  accommodations,  it  is  constantly  achieving  what,  little  more 
than  half  a  century  ago,  would  have  been  accounted  miracles  and 
impossibilities.  "  The  trunk  of  an  elephant,  it  has  been  finely  and 
truly  said,  that  can  pick  up  a  pin,  or  rend  an  oak,  is  as  nothing  to 
it.  It  can  engrave  a  seal,  and  crush  masses  of  obdurate  metal  like 
wax  before  it, — draw  out,  without  breaking,  a  thread  as  fine  as 
gossamer,-— and  lift  a  ship  of  war  like  a  bauble  in  the  air.  It  can 
embroider  muslin  and  forge  anchors ;  cut  steal  into  ribbands,  and 
impel  loaded  vessels  against  the  fury  of  the  winds  and  waves.11 

Locomotives,  under  the  impetus  communicated  by  this,  the  most 
potent,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  perfectly  controllable  of  all 
our  mechanical  agencies,  have  already  been  drawn  forward  at  the 
flying  speed  of  thirty  and  forty  miles  an  hour.  If  so  much  has 
been  done  already,  it  would  be  rash  to  conclude  that  even  this  is 
to  be  our  ultimate  limit  of  attainment.  In  navigation,  the  resist- 
ance of  the  water,  which  increases  rapidly  as  the  force  opposed 
to  it  increases,  very  soon  sets  bounds  to  the  rate  at  which  even 
the  power  of  steam  can  impel  a  vessel  forward.  But,  on  land, 
the  thin  medium  of  the  air  presents  no  such  insurmountable  ob- 
stacle to  a  force  making  its  way  through  it ;  and  a  rapidity  of 
movement  may  perhaps  be  eventually  attained  here,  which  is  to 
us  even  as  yet  inconceivable.  But  even  when  the  rate  of  land 
travelling  already  shown  to  be  quite  practicable  shall  have  become 
universal,  in  what  a  new  state  of  society  shall  we  find  ourselves ! 
When  we  shall  be  able  to  travel  a  hundred  miles  in  any  direction 
in  six  or  eight  hours,  into  what  comparative  neighborhood  will 
the  remotest  extremes  even  of  a  large  country  be  brought,  and 
how  little  shall  we  think  of  what  we  now  call  distance  !  A  nation 
will  then  be  indeed  a  community ;  and  all  the  benefits  of  the 
highest  civilization,  instead  of  being  confined  to  one  central  spot, 
will  be  diffused  equally  over  the  land,  like  the  light  of  heaven. 
This  improvement,  in  short,  when  fully  consummated,  will  confer 
upon  man  nearly  as  much  new  power  and  new  enjoyment  as  if  he 
were  actually  endowed  with  wings. 

It  is  gratifying  to  reflect  that  even  while  he  was  yet  alive,  Watt 


JAMES  WATT.  297 

received  from  the  voice  of  the  most  illustrious  of  his  contempo- 
raries the  honors  due  to  his  genius.  In  1785  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1806  ;  and 
in  1808  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.  He 
died  on  the  25th  of  August,  1819,  in  the  84th  year  of  his  age. 

We  cannot  better  conclude  our  sketch  of  the  life  of  this  great 
inventor  than  by  the  following  extract  from  the  character  that  has 
been  drawn  of  him  by  the  eloquent  writer,  (Mr.  Jeffrey,)  whom 
we  have  already  quoted.  "  Independently  of  his  great  attain- 
ments in  mechanics,  Mr.  Watt  was  an  extraordinary,  and  in  many 
respects  a  wonderful  man.  Perhaps  no  individual  in  his  age  pos- 
sessed so  much  and  such  varied  and  exact  information, — had  read 
so  much,  or  remembered  what  he  had  read  so  accurately  and  well. 
He  had  infinite  quickness  of  apprehension,  a  prodigious  memory, 
and  a  certain  rectifying  and  methodizing  power  of  understanding, 
which  extracted  something  precious  out  of  all  that  was  presented 
to  it.  His  stores  of  miscellaneous  knowledge  were  immense,  and 
yet  less  astonishing  than  the  command  he  had  at  all  times  over 
them.  It  seemed  as  if  every  subject  that  was  casually  started  in 
conversation,  had  been  that  which  he  had  been,  last  occupied  in 
studying  and  exhausting ;  such  was  the  copiousness,  the  precision, 
and  the  admirable  clearness  of  the  information  which  he  poured 
out  upon  it  without  effort  or  hesitation.  Nor  was  this  prompti- 
tude and  compass  of  knowledge  confined  in  any  degree  to  the 
studies  connected  with  his  ordinary  pursuits.  That  he  should 
have  been  minutely  and  extensively  skilled  in  chemistry  and  the 
arts,  and  in  most  of  the  branches  of  physical  science,  might  per- 
haps have  been  conjectured  ;  but  it  could  not  have  been  inferred 
from  his  usual  occupations-,  and  probably  is  not  generally  known, 
that  he  was  curiously  learned  in  many  branches  of  antiquity,  me- 
taphysics, medicine,  and  etymology,  and  perfectly  at  home  in  all 
the  details  of  architecture,  music,  and  law.  He  was  well  ac- 
quainted, too,  with  most  of  the  modern  languages,  and  familiar 
with  their  most  recent  literature.  Nor  was  it  at  all  extraordinary 
to  hear  the  great  mechanician  and  engineer  detailing  and  ex- 
pounding, for  hours  together,  the  metaphysical  theories  of  the 
German  logicians,  or  criticising  the  measures  or  the  matter  of  the 
German  poetry. 

"  His  astonishing  memory  was  aided,  no  doubt,  in  a  great 
measure,  by  a  still  higher  and  rarer  faculty^— by  his  power  of 
digesting  and  arranging  in  its  proper  place  all.  the  information  he 
received,  and  of  casting  aside  and  rejecting,  as  it  were  instinc- 
tively, whatever  was  worthless  or  immaterial.  Every  conception 


293  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

that  was  suggested  to  his  mind  seemed  instantly  to  take  its  place 
among  its  other  rich  furniture,  and  to  be  condensed  into  the  small- 
est  and  most  convenient  form.  He  never  appeared,  therefore,  to 
be  at  all  encumbered  or  perplexed  with  the  verbiage  of  the  dull 
books  he  perused,  or  the  idle  talk  to  which  he  listened  ;  but  to 
have  at  once  extracted,  by  a  kind  of  intellectual  alchemy,  all  that 
was  worthy  of  attention,  and  to  have  reduced  it  for  his  own  use 
to  its  true  value  and  to  its.  simplest  form.  And  thus  it  often  hap- 
pened, that  a  great  deal  more  was  learned  from  his  brief  and 
vigorous  account  of  the  theories  and  arguments  of  tedious  writers, 
than  an  ordinary  student  could  ever  have  derived  from  the  most 
faithful  study  of  the  originals,  and  that  errors  and  absurdities  be- 
came manifest  from  the  mere  clearness  and  plainness  of  his  state- 
ment of  them,  which  might  have  deluded  and  perplexed  most  of 
his  hearers  without  that  invaluable  assistance." 


JAMES    BRINDLEY. 

JAMES  BRINDLEY,  the  celebrated  engineer,  was  entirely  self- 
taught  in  even  the  rudiments  of  mechanical  science, — although, 
unfortunately,  we  are  not  in  possession  of  any  very  minute  details 
of  the  manner  in  which  his  powerful  genius  first  found  its  way  to 
the  knowledge  of  those  laws  of  nature  of  which  it  afterwards 
made  so  many  admirable  applications.  He  was  born  at  Tunsted, 
in  the  parish  of  Wormhill,  Derbyshire,  in  the  year  1716 ;  and 
all  we  know  of  the  first  seventeen  years  of  his  life  is,  that  his 
father,  having  reduced  himself  to  extreme  poverty  by  his  dissi- 
pated habits,  he  was  allowed  to  grow  up  almost  totally  uneducated, 
and,  from  the  time  he  was  able  to  do  any  thing,  was  employed  in 
the  ordinary  descriptions  of  country  labor.  To  the  end  of  his 
life  this  great  genius  was  barely  able  to  read  on  any  very  press- 
ing occasion ;  for,  generally  speaking,  he  would  no  more  have 
thought  of  looking  into  a  book  for  any  information  he  wanted, 
than  of  seeking  for  it  in  the  heart  of  a  millstone :  and  his  know- 
ledge of  the  art  of  writing  hardly  extended  farther  than  the  ac- 
complishment of  signing  his  name.  It  is  probable,  that  as  he  grew 
towards  manhood,  he  began  to  feel  himself  created  for  higher 
things  than  driving  a  cart  or  following  a  plough ;  and  we  may 
even  venture  to  conjecture,  that  the  particular  bias  of  his  genius 
towards  mechanical  invention  had  already  disclosed  itself,  when, 


\ 


JAMES  BRINDLEY. 


JAMES   BRINDLEY.  301 

at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  bound  himself  apprentice  to  a  person 
of  the  name  of  Bennet,  a  millwright,  residing  at  Macclesfield, 
which  was  but  a  few  miles  from  his  native  place.  At  all  events, 
it  is  certain  that  he  almost  immediately  displayed  a  wonderful 
natural  aptitude  for  the  profession  he  had  chosen.  "  In  the  early 
part  of  his  apprenticeship,"  says  the  writer  of  his  life  in  the 
'  Biographia  Britannica,'  who  was  supplied  with  the  materials  of 
his  article  by  Mr.  Henshall,  Brindley's  brother-in-law,  "  he  was 
frequently  left  by  himself  for  whole  weeks-  together,  to  execute 
works  concerning  which  his  master  had  given  him  no  previous  in- 
structions. These  works,  therefore,  he  finished  in  his  own  way  ; 
and  Mr.  Bennet  was  often  astonished  at  the  improvements  his 
apprentice  from  time  to  time  introduced  into  the  millwright  busi- 
ness, and  earnestly  questioned  him  from  whom  he  had  gained  his 
knowledge.  He  had  not  been  long  at  the  trade,  before  the  mill- 
ers, wherever  he  had  been  employed,  always  chose  him  again  in 
preference  to'  the  master,  or  any  other  workman  ;  and  before  the 
expiration  of  his  servitude,  at  which  time  Mr.  Bennet,  who  was 
advanced  in  years>  grew  unable  to  work,  Mr.  Brindley,  by  his" 
ingenuity  and  application,  kept  up  the  business  with  credit,  and 
even  supported  the  old  man  and  his  family  in  a  comfortable 
manner." 

His  master,  indeed,  from  all  that  we  hear  of  him,  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  very  capable  of  teaching  him  much  of  any 
thing  ;  and  Brindley  seems  to  have  been  left  to  pick  up  his  know- 
ledge of  the  business  in  the  best  way  he  could',  by  his  own  obser- 
vation and  sagacity.  Bennet  having  been  employed  on  one 
occasion,  we.  are  told,  to  build  the  machinery  of  a  paper-mill, 
which  he  had  never  seen  in  his  life,  took  a  journey  to  a  distant 
part  of  the  country  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting-  one 
which  might  serve  him  for  a  model.  However,  he  had  made  his 
observations,  it  would  seem,  to-  very  little  purpose •;-.  for,  having 
returned  home  and  fallen  to  work,  he  could  make  nothing  of  the 
business  at  all,  and  was  only  bewildering  himself,  when  a  stranger, 
who  understood  something  of  such  matters,  happening  one  day  to 
see  what  he  was  about,  felt  no  scruple  in  remarking  in  the  neigh- 
borhood that  the  man  was  only  throwing-  away  his  employer's 
money.  The  reports  which  in  consequence  got  abroad  soon 
reached  the  ears  of  Brindley,  who  had  been  employed  on  the 
machinery  under  the  directions  of  his  master.  Having  probably 
of  himself  begun  ere  this  to  suspect  that  all  was  not  right,  his 
suspicions  were  only  confirmed  by  what  he  heard ;  but,  aware 
how  unlikely  it  was-  that  his  master  would  be  able  to  explain 
matters,  or  even  to  assist  him  in  getting  out  of  his  difficulties,  he 

21* 


302  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

did  not  apply  to  him.  On  the  contrary,  he  said  nothing  to  any 
one  ;  but,  waiting  till  the  work  of  the  week  was  over,  set  out 
by  himself  one  Saturday  evening  to  see  the  mill  which  his  master 
had  already  visited.  He  accomplished  his  object,  and  was  back 
to  his  work  by  Monday  morning,  having  travelled  the  whole 
journey  of  fifty  miles  on  foot.  Perfectly  master  now  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  mill,  he  found  no  difficulty  in  going  on  with  his 
undertaking ;  and  completed  the  machine,  indeed,  not  only  so  as 
perfectly  to  satisfy  the  proprietor,  but  with  several  improvements 
on  his  model,  of  his  own  contrivance. 

After  remaining  some  years  with  Bennet,  he  set  up  in  business 
for  himself.  With  the  reputation  he  had  already  acquired,  his 
entire  devotion  to  his  profession,  and  the  wonderful  talent  for  me- 
chanical invention,  of  which  almost  every  piece  of  machinery  he 
constructed  gave  evidence,  he  could  not  fail  to  succeed.  But  for 
some  time,  of  course,  he  was  known  only,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  place  where  he  lived.  His  connections,  however,  gradually 
became  more  and  more  extensive  ;  and  at  length  he  began  to 
undertake  engineering  in  all  its  branches.  He  distinguished  him- 
self greatly  in  1752,  by  the  erection  of  a  water-engine  for  drain- 
ing a  coal-mine  at  Clifton  in  Lancashire.  The  great  difficulty  in 
this  case  was  to  obtain  a  supply  of  water  for  working  the  engine ; 
this  he  brought  through  a  tunnel  of  six  hundred  yards  in  length, 
cut  in  the  solid  rock.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  his  genius 
was  not  yet  quite  appreciated  as  it  deserved  to  be,  even  by  those 
who  employed  him,  He  was  in  some  sort  an  intruder  into  his 
present  profession,  for  which  he  had  not  been  regularly  educated  ; 
and  it  was  natural  enough  that,  before  his  great  powers  had  had 
an  opportunity  of  showing  themselves,  and  commanding  the  uni- 
versal admiration  of  those  best  qualified  to  judge  of  them,  he 
should  have  been  conceived  by  many  to  be  rather  a  merely  clever 
workman  in  a  few  particular  departments,  than  one  who  could  be 
safely  intrusted  with  the  entire  management  and  superintendence 
of  a  complicated  design.  In  1755  it  was  determined  to  erect  a 
new  silk-mill  at  Congleton,  in  Cheshire  ;  and  another  person  hav- 
ing been  appointed  to  preside  over  the  execution  of  the  work,  and 
to  arrange  the  more  intricate  combinations,  Brindlcy  was  engaged 
to  fabricate  the  larger  wheels  and  other  coarser  parts  of  the  ap- 
paratus. It  soon  became  manifest,  however,  in  this  instance,  that 
the  superintendent  was  unfit  for  his  office  ;  and  the  proprietors 
were  obliged  to  apply  to  Brindley  to  remedy  several  blunders  into 
which  he  had  fallen,  and  give  his  advice  as  to  how  the  work  should 
be  proceeded  in.  Still  they  did  not  deem  it  proper  to  dismiss  their 
incapable  projector ;  but,  the  pressing  difficulty  overcome,  would 


JAMES   BRINDLEY.  303 

have  had  him  by  whose  ingenuity  they  had  been  enabled  lo  get 
over  it,  to  return  to  his  subordinate  place,  and  work  under  the 
directions  of  the  same  superior.  This  Brindley  positively  refused 
to  do.  He  told  them  he  was  ready,  if  they  would  merely  let  him 
know  what  they  wished  the  machine  to  perform,  to  apply  his  best 
endeavors  to  make  it  answer  that  purpose,  and  that  he  had  no 
doubt  he  should  succeed  ;  but  he  would  not  submit  to  be  super- 
intended by  a  person  whom  he  had  discovered  to  be  quite  ignorant 
of  the  business  he  professed.  This  at  once  brought  about  a  proper 
arrangement  of  matters.  Brindley's  services  could  not  be  dis- 
pensed with ;  those  of  the  pretender,  who  had  been  set  over  him, 
might  be  so,  without  much  disadvantage.  The  entire  manage- 
ment of  the  work,  therefore,  was  forthwith  confined  to  the  former, 
who  completed  it,  with  his  usual  ability,  in  a  superior  manner. 
He  not  only  made  important  improvements,  indeed,  in  many  parts 
of  the  machine  itself,  but  even  in  the  mode  of  preparing  the 
separate  pieces  of  which  it  was  to  be  composed.  His  ever-active 
genius  was  constantly  displaying  itself  by  the  invention  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  economical  simplifications.  One  of  these  was 
a  method  which  he  contrived  for  cutting  'all  his  tooth  and  pinion 
wheels  by  machinery,  instead  of  having  them  done  by  the  hand, 
as  they  always  till  then  had  been.  This  invention  enabled  him  to 
finish  as  much  of  that  sort  of  work  in  one  day  as  had  formerly 
been  accomplished  in  fourteen. 

But  the  character  of  this  man's  mind  was  comprehensiveness 
and  grandeur  of  conception  ;  and  he  had  not  yet  found  any  ade- 
quate field  for  the  display  of  his  vast  ideas  and  almost  inexhausti- 
ble powers  of  execution.  Happily,  however,  this  was  at  last 
afforded  him,  by  the  commencement  of  a. series  of  undertakings 
in  his  native  country,  which  deservedly  rank  among  the  achieve- 
ments of  modern  enterprise  and  mechanical  skill ;  and  which  were 
destined,  within  no  long  period,  to  change  the  whole  aspect  of  the 
internal  commerce  of  the  island. 

Artificial  water-roads,  or  canals,  were  well  known  to  the  an- 
cients. Without  transcribing  all  the  learning  that  has  been  col- 
lected upon  the  subject,  and  may  be  found  in  any  of  the  common 
treatises,  we  may  merely  state  that  the  Egyptians  had  early  effect- 
ed a  junction,  by  this  means,  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  that  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  attempted  to  cut 
a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth ;  and  that  the  latter  people 
actually  cut  one  in  Britain  from  the  neighborhood  of  Peterborough 
to  that  of  Lincoln,  some  traces  of  which  are  still  discernible. 
Canal  navigation  is  also  of  considerable  antiquity  in  China.  The 
greatest  work  of  this  description  in  the  world  is  the  Imperial  Canal 


304  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

of  that  country,  which  is  two  hundred  feet  broad,  and,  commen- 
cing at  Pekin,  extends  southward,  to  the  distance  of  about  nine 
hundred  rniles.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  about 
eight  centuries  ago ;  but  there  are  a  great  many  smaller  works  of 
the  same  kind  in  the  country,  many  of  which  are  undoubtedly  much 
older.  The  Chinese  are  unacquainted,  as  were  also  the  ancients, 
with  the  contrivance  called  a  lock,  by  means  of  which  different 
levels  are  connected  in  modern  canals,  and  which,  as  probably 
all  our  readers  know,  is  merely  a  small  intermediate  space,  in 
which  the  water  can  be  kept  at  the  same  elevation  as  either  part 
of  the  channel,  into  which  the  boat  is  admitted  by  the  opening  of 
one  floodgate,  and  from  which  it  is  let  out  by  the  opening  of  an- 
other,  after  the  former  has  been,  shut; — the  purpose  being  thus 
attained,  of  floating  it  onwards,  without  any  greater  waste  of  water 
than  the  quantity  required  to  alter  the  level  of  the  enclosed  space. 
When  locks  are  not  employed,  the  canal,  must  be  either  of  uniform 
level  throughout,  or  it  must  consist  of  a  succession  of  completely 
separated  portions  of  water-way,  from,  one  to  the  other  of  which 
the  boat  is  carried  on  an  inclined  plane,  or  by  some  other  mechan- 
ical contrivance. 

Canals  have  also  been  long  in  use  in  several  of  the  countries  of 
modern  Europe,  particularly  in.  the  Netherlands  and  in  France. 
In  the  former,  indeed,  they  constitute  the  principal  means  of  com- 
munication between  one  place  and  another,  whether  for  commer- 
cial or  other  purposes.  In  France,  the  canals  of  Burgundy,  of 
Briare,  of  Orleans,  and  of  Languedoc,  all  contribute  important 
facilities  to  the  commerce  of  the  country.  The  last  mentioned, 
which  unites  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic,  is  sixty  feet  broad 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length.  It  was  finished  in  1681 ; 
having  employed  twelve  thousand  men  for  fifteen  years,  and  cost 
twelve  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  with  these  examples  before  her,  England 
was  so  late  in  availing  herself  of  the  advantages- of  canal  naviga- 
tion. The  subject,  however,  had  not  been  altogether  unthought  of. 
As  early  as  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second,  a  scheme  was  in  agi- 
tation for  cutting  a  canal  (which  has  since  been  made)  between 
the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  kingdom ;  but 
the  idea  was  abandoned,  from  the  difficulty  of  procuring  the  requi- 
site funds.  A  very  general  impression,  too,  seems  to  have  been 
felt,  in  the  earlier  part*  of  the  last  century,  as  to  the  desirableness 
of  effecting  a  canal  navigation  between  the  central  English  coun- 
ties and  either  the  metropolis  or  the  eastern  coast. 

The  first  modern  canal  actually  executed  in  England,  was  not 
begun  till  the  year  1755.  It  was  the  result  of  a  sudden  thought 


JAMES  BRINDLEY.  305 

on  the  part  of  its  undertakers,  nothing  of  the  kind  having  been 
contemplated  by  them  when  they  commenced  the  operations  which 
led  to  it.  They  had  obtained  an  act  of  parliament  for  rendering 
navigable  the  Sankey  brook,  in  Lancashire,  which  flows  into  the 
river  Mersey,  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  now  flourishing  town 
of  St.  Helen's,  through  a  district  abounding  in  valuable  beds  of 
coal.  Upon  surveying  the  ground,  however,  with  more  care,  it 
was  considered  better  to  leave  the  natural  course  of  the  stream 
altogether,  and  to  cariy  the  intended  navigation  along  a  new  line  ; 
in  other  words,  to  cut  a  canal.  The  work  was  accordingly  com- 
menced ;  and  the  powers  of  the  projectors  having  been  enlarged 
by  a  second  act  of  parliament,  the  canal  was  eventually  extended 
to  the  length  of  about  twelve  miles.  It  has  turned  out  both  a 
highly  successful  speculation  for  the  proprietors,  and  a  valuble  pub- 
lic accommodation. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Sankey  Canal,  although  it  did  not  give 
birth  to  the  first  idea  of  the  great  work  we  are  now  about  to  de- 
scribe, had  at  least  the  honor  of  prompting  the  first  decided  step 
towards  its  execution.  Francis,  duke  of  Bridgewater,  who,  while 
yet  much  under  age,  had  succeeded,  in  the  year  1748,  by  the  death 
of  his  elder  brothers,  to  the  family  estates,  and  the  title,  which  had 
been  first  borne  by  his  father,  had  a  property  at  Worsley,  about 
seven  miles  west  from  Manchester,  extremely  rich  in  coal-mines, 
which,  however,  had  hitherto  been  unproductive,  owing  to  the  want 
of  any  sufficiently  economical  means  of  transport.  The  object  of 
supplying  this  defect  had  for  some  time  strongly  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  young  duke,  as  it  had,  indeed,  done  that  of  his  father ; 
who,  in  the  year  1732,  had  obtained  an  act  of  parliament  enabling 
him  to  cut  a  canal  to  Manchester,  but  had  been  deterred  from  com- 
mencing the  work,  both  by  the  immense  pecuniary  outlay  which 
it  would  have  demanded,  and  the  formidable  natural  difficulties 
against  which,  at  that  time,  there  was  probably  no  engineer  in  the 
country  able  to  contend.  When  the  idea,  however,  was  now  re- 
vived, the  extraordinary  mechanical  genius  ot  Brindley  had  already 
acquired  for  him  an  extensive  reputation,  and  he  was  applied  to  by 
the  duke,  to  survey  the  ground  through  which  the  proposed  canal 
would  have  to  be  carried,  and  to  make  his  report  upon  the  practi- 
cability of  the  scheme.  New  as  he  was  to  this  species  of  engi- 
neering, Brindley,  confident  in  his  own  powers,  at  once  undertook 
to  make  the  desired  examination,  and,  having  finished  it,  expressed 
his  conviction  that  the  ground  presented  no  difficulties  which  might 
not  be  surmounted.  On  receiving  this  assurance,  the  duke  at  once 
determined  upon  commencing  the  undertaking ;  and  an  act  of  par- 
liament having  been  obtained  in  1758,  the  powers  of  which  were 


306  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

considerably  extended  by  succeeding  acts,  the  formation  of  the 
canal  was  begun  that  year. 

From  the  first,  the  duke  resolved  that,  without  regard  to  ex- 
pense,  every  part  of  the  work  should  be  executed  in  the  most  per- 
fect manner.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  to  be  surmounted  was 
that  of  procuring  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  ;  and,  therefore,  that 
there  might  be  as  little  of  it  as  possible  wasted,  it  was  determined 
that  the  canal  should  be  of  uniform  level  throughout,  and  of  course 
without  locks.  It  had.  consequently  to  he  carried  in  various  parts 
of  its  course  both  under  hills  and  over  wide  and  deep  valleys.  The 
point,  indeed,  from  which  it  took  its  commencement  was  the  heart 
of  the  coal  mountain  at  Worsley.  Here  a  large  basin  was  form- 
ed,  in  the  first  place,  from  which  a  tunnel  of  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  in  length  had  to  be  cut  through,  the  hill.  We  may  just  men- 
tion, in  passing,  that  the  subterraneous  course  of  the  water  beyond 
this  basin  has  since  been  extended  in  various  directions  for  about 
thirty  miles.  After  emerging  from  under  ground,  the  line  in  the 
canal  was  carried  forward,  as  we  have  stated,  by  the  intrepid 
engineer,  on  the  same  undeviating  level ;  every  obstacle  that 
presented  itself  being  triumphed  over  by  his  admirable  ingenuity, 
which  the  difficulties,  seemed  only  to  render  more  fertile  in  happy 
inventions.  Nor  did  his  comprehensive  mind  ever  neglect  even 
the  most  subordinate  departments  of  the  enterprise.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  workmen  were  every  where  facilitated  by  new  machines 
of  his  contrivance  ;  and  whatever  could  contribute  to  the  economy 
with  which  the  work  was  carried  on,  was  attended  to  only  less 
anxiously  than  what  was  deemed  essential  to  its  completeness. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  materials  excavated,  from  one  place  were 
employed  to  form  the  necessary  embankments  at  another,  to  which 
they  were  conveyed  in  boats,  having  bottoms  which  opened,  and 
at  once  deposited  the  load  in  the  place  where  it  was  wanted.  No 
part  of  his  task,  indeed,  seemed  to  meet  this  great  engineer  unpre- 
pared. He  made  no  blunders,  and  never  had  either  to  undo  any  thing, 
or  to  wish  it  undone  ;  on  the  contrary,  when  any  new  difficulty  oc- 
curred, it  appeared  almost  as  if  he  had  been  all  along  providing  for 
it — as  if  his  other  operations  had  been  directed  from  the  first  by  his 
anticipation  of  the  one  now  about  to  be  undertaken. 

In  order  to  bring  the  canal  to  Manchester  it  was  necessary  to 
carry  it  across  the  Irwell.  That  river  is,  and  was  then,  navigable 
for  a  considerable  way  above  the  place  at  which  the  canal  comes 
up  to  it ;  and  this  circumstance  interposed  an  additional  difficulty, 
as,  of  course,  in  establishing  the  one  navigation,  it  was  indispensa- 
ble that  the  other  should  not  be  destroyed  or  interfered  with.  But 
nothing  could  dismay  the  daring  genius  of  Brindley.  Thinking  it, 


JAMES    BRINDLEY.  309 

however,  due  to  his  noble  employer  to  give  him  the  most  satisfying 
evidence  in  his  power  of  the  practicability  of  his  design,  he  requested 
that  another  engineer  might  be  called  in  to  give  his  opinion  before 
its  execution  should  be  determined  on.  This  person  Brindley  car- 
ried to  the  spot  where  he  proposed  to  rear  his  aqueduct,  and  en- 
deavored to  explain  to  him  how  he  meant  to  carry  on  the  work. 
But  the  man  only  shook  his  head,  and  remarked,  that  "he  had  often 
heard  of  castles  in  the  air,  but  never  before  was  shown  where  any 
of  them  were  to  be  erected,"  The  duke,  nevertheless,  retained  his 
confidence  in  his  own  engineer,  and  it  was  resolved  that  the  work 
should  proceed.  The  erection  of  the  aqueduct,  accordingly,  was 
begun  in  September,  1760,  and  on  the  17th  of  July  following  the 
first  boat  passed  over  it,  the  whole  structure  forming  a  bridge  of 
above  two  hundred  yards  in  length,  supported  upon  three  arches, 
of  which  the  centre  one  rose  nearly  forty  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  river ;  on  which  might  be  frequently  beheld  a  vessel  passing 
along,  while  another,  with  all  its  masts  and  sails  standing,  wTas 
holding  its  undisturbed  way  directly  under  its  keel. 

In  1762  an  act  of  parliament  was,  after  much  opposition,  ob- 
tained by  the  duke,  for  carrying  a  branch  of  his  canal  to  commu- 
nicate with  Liverpool,  and  so  uniting  that  town,  by  this  method  of 
communication,  to  Manchester.  This  portion  of  the  canal,  which 
is  more  than  twenty-nine  miles  in  length,  is,  like  the  former,  with- 
out locks,  and  is  carried  by  an  aqueduct  over  the  Mersey,  the  arch 
of  which,  however,  is  less  lofty  than  that  of  the  one  over  the  Irwell, 
as  the  river  is  not  navigable  at  the  place  where  it  crosses.  It 
passes  also  over  several  valleys  of  considerable  width  and  depth. 
Before  this,  the  usual  price  of  the  carriage  of  goods  between 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  had  been  twelve  shillings  per  ton  by 
by  water,  and  forty  shillings  by  land  ;  they  were  now  conveyed  by 
the  canal,  at  a  charge  of  six  shillings  per  ton,  and  with  all  the 
regularity  of  land  carriage. 

In  contemplating  this  great  work,  we  ought  not  to  overlook  the 
admirable  manner  in  which  the  enterprising  nobleman,  at  whose 
expense  it  was  undertaken,  performed  his  part  in  'carrying  it  on. 
It  was  his  determination,  as  we  have  already  stated,  from  the  first, 
to  spare  no  expense  on  its  completion.  Accordingly,  he  devoted 
to  it  during  the  time  of  its  progress  nearly  the  whole  of  his  reve- 
nues, denying  himself,  all  the  while,  even  the  ordinary  accommo- 
dations of  his  rank,  and  living  on  an  income  of  four  hundred  a  year. 
He  had  even  great  commercial  difficulties  to  contend  with  in  the 
prosecution  of  his  schemes,  being  at  one  time  unable  to  raise  5007. 
on  his  bond  on  the  Royal  Exchange ;  and  it  was  a  chief  business 
of  his  agent,  Mr.  Gilbert,  to  ride  up  and  down  the  country  to  raise 


310  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

money  on  his  grace's  promissory  notes.  It  is  true  that  he  was 
afterwards  amply  repaid  for  this  outlay  and  temporary  sacrifice ; 
but  the  compensation  that  eventually  accrued  to  him  he  never  might 
have  lived  to  enjoy ;  and  at  all  events  he  acted  as  none  but  extra- 
ordinary men  do,  in  thus  voluntarily  relinquishing  the  present  for 
the  future,  and  preferring  to  any  dissipation  of  his  wealth  on  pass- 
ing and  merely  personal  objects,  the  creation  of  this  magnificent 
monument  of  lasting  public  usefulness.  Nor  was  it  only  in  the 
liberality  of  his  expenditure  that  the  duke  approved  himself  a  patron 
worthy  of  Brindley.  He  supported  his  engineer  throughout  the  un- 
dertaking with  unflinching  spirit,  in  the  face  of  no  little  outcry  and 
ridicule,  to  which  the  imagined  extravagance  or  impracticability 
of  many  of  his  plans  exposed  him — and  that  even  from  those  who 
were  generally  accounted  the  most  scientific  judges  of  such  matters. 
The  success  with  which  these  plans  were  carried  into  execution,  is 
probably,  in  no  slight  degree,  to  be  attributed  to  the  perfect  confi- 
dence with  which  their  author  was  thus  enabled  to  proceed. 

While  the  Bridgewater  canal  was  yet  in  progress,  Mr.  Brindley 
was  engaged  by  Lord  Gower,  and  the  other  principal  landed  pro- 
prietors of  Staffordshire,  to  survey  a  line  for  another  canal,  which 
it  was  proposed  should  pass  through  that  county,  and,  by  uniting 
the  Trent  and  the  Mersey,  open  for  it  a  communication,  by  water, 
with  both  the  east  and  west  coast.  Having  reported  favorably  of 
the  practicability  of  this  design,  and  an  act  of  parliament  having 
been  obtained  in  1765  for  carrying  it  into  effect,  he  was  appointed 
to  conduct  the  work.  The  scheme  was  one  which  had  been  often 
thought  of;  but  the  supposed  impossibility  of  carrying  the  canal 
across  the  tract  of  elevated  country  which  stretches  along  the  cen- 
tral region  of  England  had  hitherto  prevented  any  attempt  to  exe- 
cute it.  This  was,  however,  precisely  such  an  obstacle  as  Brindley 
delighted  to  cope  with ;  and  he  at  once  overcame  it,  by  carrying  a 
tunnel  through  Harecastle  Hill,  of  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eighty  yards  in  length,  at  a  depth,  in  some  places,  of  more  than 
two  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  was  only 
one  of  five  tunnels  excavated  in  different  parts  of  the  canal,  which 
extends  to  the  length  of  ninety-three  miles,  having  seventy-six  locks, 
and  passing  in  its  course  over  many  aqueducts.  Brindley,  how- 
ever, did  not  live  to  execute  the  whole  of  this  great  work,  which 
was  finished  by  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Henshall,  in  1777,  about 
eleven  years  after  its  commencement. 

During  the  time  that  these  operations,  so  new  in  England, 
were  in  progress,  the  curious  crowded  to  witness  them  from  all 
quarters,  and  the  grandeur  of  many  of  B  rind  ley's  plans  seems  to 
have  made  a  deep  impression  upon  even  his  unscientific  visiters. 


JAMES  BRINDLEY.  311 

A  letter  which  appeared  in  the  newspapers,  while  he  was  engaged 
with  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal,  gives  us  a  lively  picture  of  the 
astonishment  with  which  the  multitude  viewed  what  he  was  about 
The  writer,  it  will  be  observed,  alludes  particularly  to  the  Hare- 
castle  tunnel,  the  chief  difficulty  in  excavating  which  arose  from 
the  nature  of  the  soil  it  had  to  be  cut  through.  "  Gentlemen  come 
to  view  our  eighth  wonder  of  the  world,  the  subterranean  naviga- 
tion which  is  cutting  by  the  great  Mr.  Brindley,  who  handles  rocks 
as  easily  as  you  would  plum-pies,  and  makes  the  four  elements 
subservient  to  his  will.  He  is  as  plain  a  looking  man  as  one  of 
the  boors  of  the  Peak,  or  one  of  his  own  carters ;  but  when  he 
speaks  all  ears  listen,  and  every  mind  is  filled  with  wonder  at  the 
things  he  pronounces  to  be  practicable.  He  has  cut  a  mile  through 
bogs  which  he  binds  up,  embanking  them  with  stones,  which  he 
gets  out  of  other  parts  of  the  navigation,  besides  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  into  the  hill  Yelden,  on  the  side  of  which  he  has  a  pump, 
which  is  worked  by  water,  and  a  stove,  the  fire  of  which  sucks 
through  a  pipe  the  damps  that  would  annoy  the  men  who  are  cut- 
ting towards  the  centre  of  the  hill.  The  clay  he  cuts  out  serves 
for  brick  to  arch  the  subterraneous  part,  which  we  heartily  wish 
to  see  finished  to  Wilden  Ferry,  when  we  shall  be  able  to  send 
coals  and  pots  to  London,  and  to  different  parts  of  the  globe." 

It  would  occupy  too  much  of  our  space  to  detail,  however  rapidly, 
the  history  of  the  other  undertakings  of  this  description  to  which 
the  remainder  of  Mr.  Brindley's  life  was  devoted.  The  success 
with  which  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater?s  enterprising  plans  for  the 
improvement  of  his  property  were  rewarded,  speedily  prompted 
numerous  other  speculations  of  a  similar  description ;  and  many 
canals  were  formed  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  in  the  exe- 
cution or  planning  of  almost  all  of  which  Brindley ''s  services  were 
employed.  He  himself  had  become  quite  an  enthusiast  in  his  new 
profession,  as  a  little  anecdote  that  has  been  often  told  of  him 
may  serve  to  show.  Having  been  called  on  one  occasion  to  give 
his  evidence  touching  some  professional  point  before  a  committee 
of  the  house  of  commons,  he  expressed  himself,  in  the  course  of 
his  examination,  with  so  much  contejgapt  of  rivers  as  means  of  in- 
ternal navigation,  that  an  honorable  member  was  tempted  to  ask 
him  for  what  purpose  he  conceived  rivers  to  have  been  created? 
when  Brindley,  after  hesitating  a  moment,  replied,  "  To  feed 
canals"  His  success  as  a  builder  of  aqueducts  would  appear  to 
have  inspired  him  with  almost  as  fervid  a  zeal  in  favor  of  bridges 
as  of  canals,  if  it  be  true,  as  has  been  asserted,  that  one  of  his 
favorite  schemes  contemplated  the  joining  of  Great  Britain  to  Ire- 
land by  a  bridge  of  boats  extending  from  Port  Patrick  to  Donag. 

22 


312  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

hadee.  This  report,  however,  is  alleged  to  be  without  foundation 
by  the  late  Earl  of  Bridgewater,  in  a  curious  work  which  he  pub- 
lished some  years  ago  at  Paris,  relative  to  his  predecessor^  cele- 
brated canal. 

Brindley's  multiplied  labors,  and  intense  application,  rapidly 
wasted  his  strength,  and  shortened  his  life.  He  died  at  Turnhurst, 
in  Staffordshire,  on  the  27th  of  September,  1772,  in  the  fifty-sixth 
year  of  his  age,  having  suffered  for  some  years  under  a  hectic 
fever,  which  he  had  never  been  able  to  get  rid  of.  In  his  case, 
as  in  that  of  other  active  spirits,  the  soul  seems  to  have 

4<  O'er-iriform'd  its  tenement  of  clay ;" 

although  the  actual  bodily  fatigue  to  which  his  many  engagements 
subjected  him,  must  doubtless  have  contributed  to  wear  him  out. 
No  man  ever  lived  more  for  his  pursuit,  or  less  for  himself, 
than  Brindley.  He  had  no  sources  of  enjoyment,  or  even  of 
thought,  except  in  his  profession.  It  is  related,  that  having  once, 
when  in  London,  been  prevailed  upon  to  go  to  the  -theatre,  the 
unusual  excitement  so  confused  and  agitated  him,  as  actually  to 
unfit  him  for  business  for  several  days,  on  which  account  he  never 
could  be  induced  to  repeat  his  visit.  His  total  want  of  education, 
and  ignorance  of  literature,  left  his  genius  without  any  other  field 
in  which  to  exercise  itself  and  spend  its  strength  than  that  which 
the  pursuit  of  his  profession  afforded  it :  its  power,  even  here, 
would  not  probably  have  been  impaired,  if  it  could  have  better 
sought  relaxation  in  variety ;  on  the  contrary,  its  spring  would 
most  likely  have  been  all  the  stronger  for  being  occasionally  un- 
bent. We  have  already  mentioned  that  he  was  all  but  entirely 
ignorant  of  reading  and  writing.  He  knew  something  of  figures, 
but  did  not  avail  himself  much  of  their  assistance  in  performing 
the  calculations  which  were  frequently  necessary  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  mechanical  designs.  On  these  occasions  his  habit  was 
to  work  the  question  by  a  method  of  his  own,  chiefly  in  his  head, 
only  setting  down  the  results  at  particular  stages  of  the  operation ; 
yet  his  conclusions  were  generally  correct.  His  vigor  of  concep- 
tion, in  regard  to  machineryf^as  so  great,  that  however  compli- 
cated might  be  the  machine  he  had  to  execute,  he  never,  except 
sometimes  to  satisfy  his  employers,  made  any  drawing  or  model 
of  it ;  but  having  once  fixed  its  different  parts  in  his  mind,  would 
construct  it  without  any  difficulty,  merely  from  the  idea  of  which 
he  had  thus  possessed  himself.  When  much  perplexed  with  any 
problem  he  had  to  solve,  his  practice  was  to  take  to  bed,  in  order 
to  study  it ;  and  he  would  sometimes  remain,  we  are  told,  for  two 
or  three  days  thus  fixed  to  his  pillow  in  meditation. 


JESSE    RAMSDEN.  313 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  example  set  by  his  adventurous  genius, 
the  progress  of  artificial  navigation  in  Great  Britain  would  proba- 
bly have  been  timid  and  slow,  compared  to  what  it  has  been.  For 
a  long  time,  in  all  likelihood,  the  only  canals  would  have  been  a 
few  small  ones,  cut  in  the  more  level  parts  of  the  country,  the 
benefit  of  each  of  which  would  have  been  extremely  insignificant, 
and  confined  to  a  very  narrow  neighborhood.  He  did,  in  the  very 
infancy  of  the  art,  what  has  not  yet  been  outdone  ;  struggling,  in- 
deed,  with  such  difficulties,  and  triumphing  over  them,  as  could 
be  scarcely  exceeded  by  any  his  successors  might  have  to  en- 
counter.  By  the  boldness  arid  success  with  which,  in  particular, 
he  carried  the  grand  Trunk  Navigation  across  the  elevated  ground 
of  the  midland  counties,  he  demonstrated  that  there  was  hardly 
any  part  of  the  island  where  a  canal  might  not  be  formed ;  and, 
accordingly,  this  very  central  ridge,  which  used  to  be  deemed  so 
insurmountable  an  obstacle  to  the  junction  of  the  opposite  coasts, 
is  now  intersected  by  more  than  twenty  canals  besides  the  one 
which  he  first  drove  through  the  barrier.  It  is  in  the  conception 
and  accomplishment  of  such  grand  and  fortunate  deviations  from, 
ordinary  practice  that  we  discern  the  power,  and  confess  the  value, 
of  original  genius. 

The  case  of  Brindley  affords  us  a  wonderful  example  of  what 
the  force  of  natural  talent  will  sometimes  do  in  attaining  an  ac- 
quaintance with  particular  departments  of  science,  in  the  face  of 
almost  every  conceivable  disadvantage — where  not  only  all  edu- 
cation is  wanting,  but  even  all  access  to  books. 


JESSE  RAMSDEN. 

JESSE  RAMSDEN  was  born  in  1735,  at  Salterhebble,  near  Hali- 
fax, where  his  father  kept  an  inn.  The  education  he  received  in 
his  boyhood  embraced  both  a  little  Latin  and  the  elements  of 
geometry  and  algebra.  But  when  he  was  of  the  usual  age  for 
being  put  to  a  business,  his  father  took  him  from  school,  and  bound 
him  apprentice  to  a  clothier  in  Halifax ;  and  in  this  line  he  con- 
tinued till  he  reached  his  twentieth  year,  when  he  came  up  to 
London,  and  obtained  employment  as  a  clerk  in  a  wholesale  ware- 
house. He  held  this  situation  for  about  two  years  and  a  half;  but 
in  the  mean  time  he  had  industriously  availed  himself  of  what 
leisure  he  could  command  to  renew  and  extend  his  acquaintance 


314  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

with  science  ;  and  so  enamoured  did  he  gradually  become  of  these 
pursuits,  that  he  at  last  resolved  to  make  an  effort  to  establish 
himself  in .  some  line  more  closely  connected  with  his  favorite 
studies  than  that  which  he  had  heretofore  followed.  With  this 
view,  notwithstanding  that  he  was  now  so  far  beyond  the  age  at 
which  the  learning  of  a  business  is  usually  begun,  he  bound  him- 
self  apprentice  for  four  years  to  Mr.  Burton,  of  Denmark-court, 
a  mathematical  instrument  maker.  On  the  expiration  of  this 
term,  he  and  a  fellow-workman  of  the  name  of  Cole  entered  into 
business  together,  Ramsden  serving  the  olher  as  journeyman  at  a 
salary  of  twelve  shillings  per  week.  This  connection,  however, 
did  not  last  long ;  and  on  its  termination  Ramsden  opened  a  shop 
of  his  own.  His  chief  employment  for  some  time  consisted  in 
repairing  optical  and  other  mathematical  instruments  which  had 
got  out  of  order ;  and  in  this  the  industry  and  ability  he  displayed 
soon  brought  him  into  notice,  and  procured  him  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing business.  But  he  did  not  rest  satisfied  with  merely  performing 
in  a  superior  manner  such  work  as  he  undertook  of  this  descrip- 
tion ;  the  different  instruments  which  passed  through  his  hands 
forcibly  attracted  his  attention  to  the  imperfections  by  which  each 
happened  to  be  characterized,  and  called  his  powers  of  contrivance 
into  exercise  in  devising  how.  they  might  be  improved.  In  order 
to  accomplish  himself  the  more  completely  for  this  task,  he  labored 
assiduously  till  he  acquired,  entirely  by  his  own  application,  the 
art  of  grinding  glass,  and  of  handling  the  file,  the  lathe,  and  the 
other  instruments  used  by  opticians.  Thus  furnished  with  the 
practical  skill  and  dexterity  requisite  to  enable  him  to  apply  his 
ingenuity  and  mathematical  knowledge.,  he  proceeded  to  enter 
upon  a  regular  and  comprehensive  examination  of  all  the  different 
optical  instruments  in  use,  with  a  view  to  the  remedying  of  their 
several  defects. 

This  resolution,  and  the  perseverance  with  which  it  was  followed 
up,  eventually  made  Ramsden  one  of  the  greatest  optical  mechani- 
cians that  the  world  has  ever  produced.  The  list  of  the  in- 
struments which  are  indebted  to  him  for  the  most  ingenious  and 
valuable  improvements,  embraces  nearly  all  those  of  greatest  im- 
portance and  most  common  use  in  astronomy  and  the  connected 
sciences.  Hadley?s  quadrant,  the  sextant,  the  theodolite,  the  baro- 
meter, the  transit  instrument,  and  many  others  too  numerous  to 
specify,  all  came  out  of  his  hands,  it  might  almost  be  said,  with 
new  powers,  and  certainly,  at  all  events,  with  much  more  in  every 
case  than  they  before  possessed,  both  of  manageableness  and  of 
accuracy.  In  this  last  respect,  especially,  the  instruments  con- 
strueted  by  'him  far  surpassed  any  that  had  before  been  produced  \ 


JESSE   KAMSDEN.  315 

and  they  were  indebted  for  much  of  their  superiority  to  a  new 
dividing  or  graduating  engine  which  he  had  contrived,  the  prin- 
ciple of  which  was  extremely  ingenious.  It  consisted  essentially 
of  a  marker  moved  forward  by  the  turning  of  a  very  fine-threaded 
screw.  It  is  easy  to  make  a  screw  with  a  hundred  turns  of  the 
thread  in  an  inch ;  and  by  attaching  to  it  a  handle  or  index  of 
sufficient  length,  so  that  the  extremity  may  be  over  a  properly 
divided  circle  of  considerable  magnitude,  the  movement  of  such  a 
screw  may  be  regulated  with  perfect  precision  to  the  thousandth 
part  of  one  of  its  entire  revolutions.  Now,  as  by  such  a  revolu- 
tion it  would  only  advance  the  marker  the  hundredth  part  of  an 
inch,  it  is  evident  that,  by  being  turned  only  the  thousandth  part 
of  an  entire  revolution  every  time  the  marker  is  allowed  to  descend 
and  make  an  impression  upon  the  plate  of  metal  or  other  surface 
to  be  divided,  a  hundred  thousand  equidistant  lines  may  actually 
be  drawn  upon  every  inch  of  that  surface.  For  this  most  useful 
contrivance  the  Board  of  Longitude  awarded  him  a  premium  of 
£615 ;  and  in  return  he  engaged  to  graduate  whatever  sextants 
were  put  into  his  hands  for  that  purpose,  at  the  rate  of  three  shil- 
lings a-piece.  His  engine,  indeed,  enabled  him  to  perform  the 
operation  in  about  twenty  minutes,  whereas  it  had  been  wont  to 
occupy  many  hours.  But  the  additional  accuracy  which  was  given 
to  the  instrument  to  which  it  was  applied  by  the  new  method,  was 
of  still  greater  importance  than  its  comparative  expedition  and 
cheapness.  Hadley's  quadrant,  for  instance,  used  to  be  so  coarsely 
divided,  and  in  .other  respects  so  defectively  made,  before  it  re- 
ceived Ramsden1s  improvements,  that,  in  endeavoring  to  ascertain 
the  longitude  by  it,  the  observation  might  in  some  cases  lead  to  an 
error  of  fifty  leagues ;  but  Ramsden  constructed  it  in  so  superior 
a  manner,  that  even  his  commonest  instruments  did  not  admit  of 
an  error  being  fallen  into  of  more  than  the  tenth  part  of  that 
amount,  and  with  those  of  a  more  expensive  description  accuracy 
was  ensured  in  all  cases  to  within  a  single  league. 

Soon  after  he  commenced  business,  Ramsden  married  Miss 
Dollond,  daughter  of  the  inventor  of  the  achromatic  telescope,  part 
of  the  patent  for  which  came  in  this  way  into  his  possession.  In 
1786  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  having  been 
proposed  by  his  friends  without  his  knowledge,  after  his  diffidence 
in  his  claims  to  such  a  distinction  had  made  him  long  withhold  his 
consent  to  their  taking  that  step.  In  1794  he  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Petersburg ;  and  in 
1795  the  Royal  Society  awarded  him  the  gold  medal  annually  be- 
stowed by  them  for  eminence  in  science. 

The  Reverend  Lewis  Dutens,  the  author  of  the  "  Researches  on 

22* 


316  JFOKJfilGJN    MECHANICS. 

the  Origin  of  Discoveries,"  who  was  intimately  acquainted  with 
Ramsden,  has  given  us  an  account  of  his  friend,  which  contains 
some  interesting  particulars  of  his  character  and  habits.  After 
noticing  his  great  activity,  the  uncommon  force  of  his  reasoning 
powers,  and  the  accurate  and  retentive  memory  with  which  he 
was  endowed,  the  writer  proceeds  to  remark,  that  perhaps,  after 
all,  the  most  distinguishing  quality  of  his  mind  was  a  certain  ele- 
gance, and  taste  for  precision  and  high  finish,  which  appeared  not 
more  in  the  instruments  he  manufactured  than  in  every  thing  he 
did.  "  This  feeling  for  perfection,"  Mr.  Dutens  goes  on  to  say, 
"  led  him,  in  the  most  minute  and  insignificant  parts  of  his  instru- 
ments, to  a  polish  and  grace,  which  sometimes  tempted  those  to 
smile  who  did  not  perceive  that  the  same  principle  which  enabled 
him  to  carry  the  essential  parts  of  his  instruments  to  a  degree  of 
perfection  unknown,  and  considered  as  impossible  before  his  time, 
induced  him  to  be  dissatisfied  if  a  blemish  of  any  sort,  even  the 
most  trifling,  appeared  to  his  exquisite  eye.  To  these  uncom- 
monly strong  natural  endowments  he  added  all  that  the  most  con- 
stant and  intense  study  could  bestow.  Temperate  to  abstemious- 
ness in  his  diet,  satisfied  with  an  extremely  small  portion  of  sleep, 
unacquainted  with  dissipation  or  amusement,  and  giving  but  very 
little  time  even  to  the  society  of  his  friends,  the  whole  of  those 
hours  which  he  could  spare  from  the  duties  of  his  profession  were 
devoted  either  to  meditation  on  farther  improvements  of  philo- 
sophical instruments,  or  to  the  perusal  of  books  of  science,  parti- 
cularly those  mathematical  works  of  the  most  sublime  writers 
which  had  any  connection  with  the  subjects  of  his  own  pursuits, 
Mr.  Ramsden  :s  only  relaxation  from  these  constant  and  severe 
studies  was  the  occasional  perusal  of  the  best  authors  both  in 
prose  and  verse  ;  and  when  it  is  recollected  that  at  an  advanced 
age  he  made  himself  so  completely  master  of  the  French  language 
as  to  read  with  peculiar  pleasure  the  works  of  Boileau  and  Moliere, 
he  will  not  be  accused  of  trifling  even  in  his  lighter  hours.  Short 
and  temperate  as  were  his  repasts,  a  book  or  a  pen  were  the  con- 
stant companions  of  his  meals,  and  not  seldom  brought  on  a  for- 
getfulness  of  hunger ;  and  when  illness  broke  his  sleep,  a  lamp 
and  a  book  were  ever  in  readiness  to  beguile  the  sense  of  pain, 
and  make  bodily  sickness  minister  to  the  progress  of  his  mind. 
Of  the  extent  of  his  mathematical  knowledge  he  was  always  from 
innate  modesty  averse  to  speak,  although  I  have  heard  him  say 
that  he  never  was  at  a  loss  when  his  profession  required  the  ap- 
plication of  geometry.  His  knowledge  in  the  science  of  optics  is 
well  known  to  have  been  perfect ;  and  when  we  add  that  the  works 
of  Bouguer  and  the  great  Leonard  Euler  were  his  favorite  study, 


JESSE  RAMSDEN.  317 

We  shall  not  lightly  rate  his  proficiency  in  mathematics.  Of  his 
skill  in  mechanics  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak.  Nor  let  it  be  sup. 
posed  that  his  science  in  his  profession  was  limited  to  the  higher 
branch  of  invention  and  direction  of  the  labors  of  others.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact,  that  such  was  his  own  manual  dexterity,  that 
there  was  not  any  one  tool,  in  any  of  the  numerous  branches  of 
his  profession,  which  he  could  not  use  with  a  degree  of  perfection 
at  least  equal  to  that  of  the  very  best  workman  in  that  particular 
branch ;  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  assert  that  he  could  with  his 
own  hands  have  begun  and  finished  every  single  part  of  his  most 
complicated  instruments.  It  may  not  be  foreign  to  this  part  of 
his  character  to  observe,  that  his  drawings  were  singularly  neat 
and  accurate,  and  his  handwriting  so  beautiful,  that  when  he  chose 
to  exert  his  skill  few  writing-masters  could  equal  it.11 

In  order  to  ensure  that  perfect  accuracy  which  it  was  his  object 
to  give  to  every  instrument  he  sold,  Ramsden  had  all  the  parts  of 
the  work  done  under  his  own  inspection ;  and  for  this  purpose  he 
kept  men  of  every  necessary  branch  of  trade  in  his  establishment. 
He  availed  himself  also  to  the  utmost  of  the  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  division  of  labor — allotting  to  every  workman  his 
particular  department,  from  which  he  was  never  called  away  to 
another.  He  employed  about  sixty  men  in  all ;  but  such  was  his 
reputation  over  all  Europe,  and  so  numerous  were  the  orders  he 
received,  that  even  with  this  large  establishment  he  found  it  im- 
possible to  execute  them  with  the  requisite  expedition.  About 
this,  indeed,  he  did  not  give  himself  much  trouble ;  what  alone  he 
cared  for  was,  that  every  instrument  which  bore  his  name  should 
be  worthy  of  his  reputation,  no  matter  what  time  or  pains  it  should 
cost  to  make  it  so.  No  man  was  ever  more  nobly  indifferent  to 
the  mere  pecuniary  gains  of  his  art.  If  he  had  been  anxious  to 
enrich  himself,  he  might  have  easily  accumulated  a  large  fortune ; 
but  for  that  object  he  would  have  had  to  enlarge  his  already  exten- 
sive establishment  so  much  farther,  that  his  personal  superintend- 
ence of  every  part  of  it  would  have  been  impossible.  So  far  was 
he  from  being  influenced  by  any  views  of  this  kind,  that  it  is  as- 
serted he  never  executed  any  one  of  the  many  great  works  for 
which  he  received  commissions  from  public  bodies,  both  in  his 
own  and  other  countries,  without  being  a  loser  by  it  as  a  trades- 
man. When  he  occasionally  sent  for  a  workman  to  give  him 
necessary  directions  concerning  what  he  wished  to  have  done,  he 
first  showed  the  recent  finished  plan,  then  explained  the  different 
parts  of  it,  and  generally  concluded  by  saying,  with  the  greatest 
good-humour,  "Now  see,  man,  let  us  try  to  find  fault  with  it;"  and 
thus,  by  putting  two  heads  together  to  scrutinize  his  own  perform- 


318  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

ance,  some  alteration  was  probably  made  for  the  better.  But, 
whatever  expense  an  instrument  had  cost  in  forming,  if  it  did  not 
fully  answer  the  intended  design,  he  would  immediately  say,  after 
a  little  examination  of  the  work,  "  Bobs,  man !  this  won't  do ;  we 
must  have  at  it  again ;"  and  when  it  did  not  answer  his  expecta- 
tions, he  never  hesitated  to  take  it  to  pieces,  or  to  destroy  it,  what- 
ever  had  been  the  cost  bestowed  upon  its  construction.  Admirable 
as  all  his  instruments  were,  too,  for  their  accuracy,  their  high 
finish,  their  durability,  and  all  the  other  qualities  that  make  up  the 
excellence  of  such  productions,  he  generally  put  a  less  price  upon 
them — in  some  cases  a  much  less  price — than  was  charged  for 
inferior  works  of  the  same  kind  by  other  artists. 

It  was  his  custom  to  retire  in  the  evening  to  what  he  considered 
the  most  comfortable  corner  in  the  house,  viz.,  the  kitchen  fire- 
side, in  order  to  draw  some  plan  for  the  forming  of  some  new  in- 
strument, or  perfecting  one  already  made.  There  he  sat,  with  his 
drawing  implements  on  the  table  before  him,  a  cat  sitting  on  the 
one  side,  and  a  certain  portion  of  bread,  butter,  and  a  small  mug 
of  porter,  placed  on  the  other  side,  while  four  or  five  apprentices 
commonly  made  up  the  circle.  He  amused  himself  with  either 
whistling  the  favorite  air,  or  sometimes  singing  the  old  ballad,  of 

"  If  she  is  not  so  true  to  me, 

What  care  I  to  whom  she  be  : 
What  care  I,  what  care  I  to  whom  she  be  !" 

and  appeared  in  this  domestic  group  contented  and  happy. 

Mr.  Ramsden  died  on  the  5th  of  November,  1800,  at  Brighton, 
to  which  place  he  had  gone  a  short  time  before  with  the  view  of 
recovering  his  health,  which,  never  vigorous,  had  latterly  been 
greatly  impaired  by  his  unremitting  exertions.  He  died  possessed 
of  only  a  small  fortune  ;  and,  in  the  spirit  in  which  he  had  lived, 
he  left  the  greater  part  of  it  to  be  divided  among  his  workmen,  in 
proportion  to  their  merits  and  their  length  of  service. 


EARL  OF   STANHOPE. 

THIS  eccentric  and  ingenious  nobleman  was  born  at  Chevening, 
Kent,  in  August,  1753.  In  his  9th  year  he  was  sent  to  Eton,  and 
at  this  early  age  began  to  give  strong  proofs  of  his  mechanical  and 
mathematical  taste.  In  his  ninteenth  year  he  was  removed  to 
Geneva,  and  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Le  Sage ;  and  a  few 


STANHOPE. 


STANHOPE.  321 

months  afterwards,  he  gained  a  prize,  offered  by  a  national  aca- 
demy for  the  best  paper  written  in  French,  on  the  construction  of 
the  pendulum. 

The  earl  was  the  author  of  a  great  number  of  inventions  and 
improvements  in  the  arts  and  philosophy.  Among  those  which 
attracted  the  most  attention  were  his  electrical  experiments ;  his 
scheme  for  securing  buildings  from  fire ;  a  machine  for  solving 
problems  in  arithmetic ;  a  mode  of  roofing  houses  ;  a  kiln  for 
burning  lime, — a  steamboat, — and  a  double  inclined  plane  for  re- 
medying  the  inconvenience  attending  canal  locks.  This  was  sug- 
gested to  the  earl  while  he  was  forming  a  canal  in  Devonshire, 
the  line  of  which  he  surveyed  himself;  and  during  this  employment, 
he  for  days  carried  the  theodolite  on  his  own  shoulders.  Experi- 
ments on  stereotype  printing, — an  esteemed  printing  press  which 
bears  his  name, — a  plan  for  preventing  forgeries  in  coin  and  bank 
notes,  &c.  &c.  In  putting  his  ideas  into  practice  he  was  assisted 
by  Mr.  Varley,  one  of  the  .most  expert  practical  mechanics  of 
the  day. 

But  numerous  and  important  as  his  labors  were  to  the  arts,  they 
were,  even  in  a  public  view,  exceeded  in  importance  by  the  impulse 
which  his  patronage  gave  to  mechanical  artists.  He  appeared  to 
be  delighted  in  bringing  them  and  their  productions  before  the 
public,  and  in  this  way  he  spent  a  large  portion  of  his  ample  for- 
tune,  and  almost  the  whole  of  his  thoughts  and  time. 

Whatever  view  different  men  might  take  of  the  soundness  or 
tendency  of  his  political  principles,  all  were  convinced  that  they 
sprang  from  the  honest  conviction  of  his  own  mind,  uninfluenced 
by  the  most  remotely  interested  motive,  for  he  uniformly  declined 
all  offices  and  public  honors.  If  his  projects,  both  political  and 
mechanical,  were  occasionally  considered  impracticable,  they  were 
neither  sordid  nor  selfish. 

His  speeches  in  the  house  of  lords,  and  in  public,  on  whatever 
topic,  were  ingenuous,  perspicuous,  and  somewhat  forcible.  But  it 
was  often  as  difficult  to  answer  as  to  concur  with  them ; — for  he 
seldom  adapted  his  opinions  to  the  state  of  public  affairs,  but  rea- 
soned from  some  abstract  standard  of  moral  or  political  right,  that 
was  seldom  in  accordance  with  principles  of  party  or  state  expe- 
diency. He  was  sometimes  eloquent,  and  at  others,  very  eccentric 
in  his  illustrations.  There  was  often  a  certain  quaintness  of  man- 
ner about  them  that  made  them  quite  irresistible,  even  to  produ- 
cing laughter,  from  the  guarded  and  studied  gravity  of  the  incumbent 
on  the  woolsack. 

His  activity  and  perseverance  were  amazing,  for  notwithstanding 
the  multiplicity  of  his  projects  and  experiments,  he  was  assuredly 


322  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

profoundly  learned  in  every  thing  that  regarded  the  constitution 
and  ecclesiastical  polity  of  his  country,  and  when  on  these  subjects, 
it  is  said  he  even  taught  "  the  Judges  law,  and  the  Bishops  reli- 
gion!^— When  questions  arose  which  required  a  practical  know- 
ledge of  the  exact  sciences,  or  their  application  to  the  arts,  if  he 
were  not  the  only  man,  he  was,  at  least,  the  ablest  in  the  house  to 
expound,  discuss,  and  decide  them  :  and  on  such  occasions  he  ever 
acted  with  great  judgment. 

Earl  Stanhope  married  Hester  Pitt,  a  daughter  of  the  great 
Earl  of  Chatham,  whose  political  principles  he  venerated  with  a 
feeling  little  removed  from  idolatry ;  and  in  the  early  part  of  his 
public  career,  acted  cordially  with  his  brother-in-law  Mr.  Pitt. 
But  the  circumstances  which  induced  that  consummate  statesman 
to  alter  his  opinions,  had  not  the  same  effect  on  the  earl,  and  their 
political  connection  was  dissolved.  On  this  separation  taking  place, 
a  domestic  difficulty  sprung  up  between  Stanhope,  and  his  wife  and 
wife's  connections.  This  dissension  arose  from  the  fact,  that  Stan- 
hope desired  that  his  children  should  devote  themselves  to  acquire 
some  useful  calling  as  he  had  done,  by  which,  when  the  day  of  pub- 
lic calamity  came,  which  he  imagined  he  foresaw  the  rapid  ap- 
proach of, — they  might  secure  independence  by  their  own  personal 
ingenuity  and  labor.  But  his  family  preferring  the  patronage  of 
their  uncle,  the  minister,  to  the  protection  of  the  paternal  roof, 
Stanhope  declared  as  they  chose  to  be  saddled  on  the  public 
purse,  they  must  "  take  the  consequences.'1''  They  were  not  there- 
fore mentioned  in  his  will,  although  they  were  entitled  to  certain 
sums  by  a  marriage  settlement. 

"  Charles  Stanhope,11  said  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  "as  a  carpenter, 
a  blacksmith,  or  millwright,  could  in  any  country,  or  any  times, 
preserve  his  independence  and  bring  up  his  family  in  honest  and 
industrious  courses,  without  soliciting  the  bounty  of  friends  or  the 
charity  of  strangers." 

Stanhope  was  odd  in  his  dress  and  person,  and  his  plain,  unaf- 
fected, amiable  manners,  were  considered  to  be  singular  for  a  man 
of  his  high  rank  and  connections  :  but  they  conciliated  affection  in 
many  cases  approaching  to  devotion,  and  his  general  integrity 
commanded  universal  respect.  He  was  a  considerate  and  kind 
landlord,  an  ardent  friend,  and  his  purse  and  influence  were  ever 
open  to  befriend  the  helpless  and  the  poor  ;  but  he  always  disliked 
any  superfluous  expressions  of  gratitude. 

Among  other  anecdotes  of  his  lordship's  eccentricities,  the  fol- 
lowing is  related.  He  was  very  particular  in  the  shape  and  tex- 
ture of  his  wigs,  which  were  peculiar,  and  was  a  long  time  in  getting 
a  barber  to  make  them  to  his  liking,  but  at  last  succeeded.  It 


HOHLFELD.  323 

happened,  however,  that  at  a  period  when  his  stock  of  these  "  ele- 
gant imitations  of  nature"  was  "  unusually  low,11  the  poor  barber 
was  taken  so  exceedingly  ill  that  his  life  was  despaired  of.  His 
lordship  immediately  on  hearing  of  the  illness  of  his  favorite 
artist,  sent  a  physician  to  attend  him,  and  the  first  desire  of  the- 
barber  on  his  recovery  was,  very  naturally,  to  assure  the  noble 
lord  of  his  gratitude  for  this  unexpected  act  of  benevolence. 
After  a  few  words  of  condolence,  his  lordship  asked  him  if  his 
funds  were  not  exhausted  by  his  long  inability  to  attend  to  his 
business,  and  whether  an  order  in  the  way  of  trade  would  not  be 
serviceable  to  him.  Receiving  an  answer  in  the  affirmative,  he 
ordered  a  score  of  wigs.  Upon  bringing  them  home,  the  wig  maker 
began  to  pour  forth  the  grateful  feelings  of  his  heart  for  this  new 
kindness,  in  addition  to  having  saved  his  life,  when  his  lordship 
interrupted  him  by  putting  down  the  money,  and  jokingly  re- 

marked,  "  Oh ! — you  may  now  die  and  be for  aught  I  care, 

for  I  have  got  wigs  enough  to  last  all  my  life!'1'' 

Lord  Stanhope  died  in  December,  1815,  deeply  lamented  by  all, 
but  more  especially  by  the  humbler  class  of  citizens,  whose  esteem 
and  friendship  he  had  won  by  his  interest  and  exertions  in  their 
welfare. 


HOHLFELD. 

HOHLFELD,  the  celebrated  German  mechanic,  was  born  of  poor 
parents  at  Hennerndorf,  in  the  mountains  of  Saxony,  in  the  year 
1711.  He  learned  the  trade  of  lace-making  at  Dresden,  and  early 
disovered.a  turn  for  mechanics  by  constructing  various  kinds  of 
clocks.  From  Dresden  he  removed  to  Berlin  to  follow  his  occu- 
pation. As  he  was  an  excellent  workman,  and  had  invented  several 
machines  for  shortening  his  labor,  he  found  sufficient  time  to  in- 
dulge his  inclination  for  mechanics ;  and  he  made  there,  at  the 
same  tima  he  pursued  his  usual  business,  air-guns  and  clocks.  In 
the  year  1748,  he  became  acquainted  with  the  celebrated  Sulzer, 
at  whose  desire  he  undertook  the  construction  of  a  machine  for 
noting  down  any  piece  of  music  when  played  upon  a  harpsichord. 
A  machine  of  this  kind  had  been  before  invented  by  Mr.  Von  Un- 
ger,  but  Hohlfeld,  from  a  very  imperfect  description,  completed  one 
without  any  assistance.  Of  this  machine,  now  in  the  possession 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin,  Sulzer  gave  a  figure,  from 
which  it  was  afterwards  constructed  in  England.  This  ingenious 


324       ;  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

piece  of  mechanism  was  universally  approved,  though  several 
things  may  be  wanting  to  render  it  complete ;  but  no  one  was  so 
generous  as  to  indemnify  the  artist  for  his  expenses,  or  to  reward 
him  for  his  labor. 

About  the  year  1756,  the  Prussian  minister,  Count  de  Powde- 
wils,  took  him  into  his  service,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  construct, 
ing  water-works  in  his  magnificent  gardens  at  Gusow.  There  he 
invented  his  well-known  threshing  machine,  and  another  for  chop, 
ping  straw  more  expeditiously.  He  also  displayed  his  talent  for 
invention  by  constructing  an  apparatus  which,  when  fastened  to  a 
carriage,  indicated  the  number  of  revolutions  made  by  the  wheels. 
Such  machines  had  been  made  before,  but  his  far  exceeded  every 
thing  of  the  like  kind.  Having  lost  this  machine  by  a  fire,  he  in- 
vented another  still  simpler,  which  was  so  contrived  as  to  be  buck- 
led between  the  spokes  of  the  wheel.  This  piece  of  mechanism 
was  in  the  possession  of  Sulzer,  who  used  it  on  his  tour,  and  found 
that  it  answered  the  intended  purpose. 

In  the  year  1765,  when  the  Duke  of  Courland,  then  hereditary 
prince,  resided  at  Berlin,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Hohlfeld  and  endeavor- 
ed to  prevail  on  him  to  go  to  Courland,  by  offering  him  a  pension 
of  eight  hundred  rix-dollars ;  but  this  ingenious  man  was  so  con- 
tented with  his  condition,  and  so  attached  to  his  friends,  that  he 
would  not,  merely  for  self-interest,  quit  Berlin.  His  refusal,  how- 
ever, obtained  for  him  a  pension  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars 
from  the  king.  Besides  the  before  mentioned  machines,  he  con- 
structed occasionally  several  useful  models.  Among  these  was  a 
loom  for  weaving  figured  stuffs,  so  contrived  that  the  weaver  had 
no  need  of  any  thing  to  shoot  through  the  woof;  a  pedometer  for 
putting  in  the  pocket ;  a  convenient  and  simple  bed  for  a  sick 
person,  by  which  the  patient  could  at  any  time,  with  the  least  ef- 
fort, raise  or  lower  the  breast,  and,  when  necessary,  convert  the 
bed  into  a  stool ;  and  a  carriage,  so  formed,  that  if  the  horses  took 
fright  and  ran  away,  the  person  in  it  could,  by  a  single  push,  loosen 
the  pole  and  set  them  at  liberty. 

Every  machine  that  this  singular  man  saw,  he  altered  and  im- 
proved in  the  simplest  manner.  All  his  own  instruments  he  made 
himself,  and  repaired  them  when  damaged.  But  as  he  was  fonder 
of  inventing  than  of  following  the  plans  of  others,  he  made  them 
in  such  a  way  that  no  one  but  himself  could  use  them.  Several 
of  his  improvements  were,  however,  imitated  by  common  work, 
men,  though  in  a  very  clumsy  manner.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  he  never  besj^wed  study  upon  any  thing ;  but  when  he  had 
once  conceived  an  idea,  he  immediately  executed  it.  He  compre- 
hended in  a  moment  whatever  was  proposed,  and  at  the  same  time 


MATTHEW  BOULTON. 


MATTHEW  BOULTON.  327 

saw  how  it  was  to  be  accomplished.  He  could,  therefore,  tell  in 
an  instant  whether  a  thing  was  practicable  ;  if  he  thought  it  was 
not,  no  persuasion  or  offer  of  money  could  induce  him  to  attempt 
it.  He  never  pursued  chimeras,  like  those  mechanics  who  have 
not  had  the  benefit  of  education  or  instruction ;  and  though  this 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  intercourse  he  had  with  great  mathemati- 
cians and  philosophers,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  he 
would  have  equally  guarded  himself  against  them,  even  had  he  not 
enjoyed  that  advantage. 

The  same  quickness  of  apprehension  which  he  manifested  in 
mechanics,  he  showed  also  in  other  things.  His  observations  on 
most  subjects  were  judicious,  and  peculiar  to  himself.  With 
regard  to  his  moral  character,  he  was  every  thing  that  could 
be  desired.  Although  he  still  retained  something  of  the  man- 
ners of  his  former  condition,  his  mild  and  pleasing  deportment 
rendered  his  company  and  conversation  agreeable.  He  possessed 
a  good  heart,  and  his  life  was  sober  and  regular.  Though  he  was 
every  day  welcome  to  the  best  tables,  he  stayed  for  the  most  part 
at  home  through  choice ;  went  to  market  for  his  own  provisions, 
which  he  cooked  himself,  and  was  as  contented  over  his  humble 
meal  as  Ourius  was  over  his  turnips.  A  little  before  his  death  he 
had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  a  curious  harpsichord  he  had  made,  and 
which  was  purchased  by  his  Prussian  majesty,  placed  in  an  elegant 
apartment  of  the  new  palace  at  Pottsdam.  As  he  had  for  some 
time  neglected  this  instrument,  the  too  great  attention  which  he 
bestowed  on  putting  it  in  order,  contributed  not  a  little  to  bring 
on  that  disease  which  at  last  proved  fatal  to  him.  His  clock  hav- 
ing become  deranged  during  his  illness,  he  could  not  be  prevented, 
notwithstanding  the  admonition  and  advice  of  his  friend  and  phy- 
sician, Dr.  Stahls,  from  repairing  it.  Close  application  occasioned 
some  obstructions  which  were  not  observed  till  too  late  ;  and  an 
inflammation  taking  place,  he  died,  in  1771,  at  the  house  of  Count 
de  Powdewils,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 


MATTHEW  BOULTON. 

THIS  individual,  well  known  as  the  partner  of  the  celebrated 
Watt,  was  born  at  Birmingham  on  the  14th  of  September,  1728  ; 
and  after  having  received  a  tolerable  education,  studied  drawing 
and  mathematics.  He  commenced  business  as  a  manufacturer  of 

23 


328  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

hardware ;  and  having  discovered  a  new  method  of  inlaying  steel, 
he  sent  a  considerable  quantity  of  buckles,  watch-chains,  &c.,  to 
the  continent,  where  they  were  purchased  by  the  English  travellers 
as  the  offspring  of  French  ingenuity.  Finding  his  premises  at 
Birmingham  not  sufficiently  capacious  for  his  purposes,  he,  in 
1762,  purchased  an  extensive  tract  of  heath,  about  two  miles  from 
the  town,  and  at  great  expense  laid  the  foundation  of  those  vast 
and  unrivalled  works  known  as  the  Soho  establishment.  To  this 
spot  his  liberality  soon  attracted  numbers  of  ingenious  men  from 
all  parts,  and  by  their  aid  the  most  splendid  apartments  in  Europe 
received  their  ornaments. 

About  1767,  finding  the  force  of  the  water-mill  inadequate  to 
his  purposes,  he  constructed  a  steam  engine  upon  the  original  plan 
of  Savery ;  and  two  years  afterwards  entered  into  partnership 
with  Watt,  in  conjunction  with  whom  he  turned  that  machine  into 
several  new  and  important  uses.  They  soon  acquired  a  mechan- 
ical fame  all  over  Europe  by  the  extent  and  utility  of  their  under- 
takings ;  the  most  important  of  which  was  their  improvement  in 
coinage,  which  they  effected  about  1788.  The  coins  struck  at  the 
Soho  manufactory  were  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  execution, 
and  caused  the  inventors  to  be  employed  by  the  Sierra  Leone 
Company  in  the  coinage  of  their  silver,  and  by  the  East  India 
Company  in  that  of  their  copper. 

Mr.  Boulton  also  sent  two  complete  mints  to  St.  Petersburg ; 
and  having  presented  the  late  emperor  Paul  the  First  with  some 
of  the  most  curious  articles  of  his  manufacture,  that  sovereign 
returned  him  a  polite  letter  of  thanks  and  approbation,  together 
with  a  princely  present  of  medals  and  minerals  from  Siberia,  and 
specimens  of  all  the  modern  money  of  Russia.  Another  invention 
which  emanated  from  the  Soho  establishment  was  a  method  of 
copying  oil  paintings  with  such  fidelity  as  to  deceive  the  most 
practised  connoisseurs.  The  last  discovery  for  which  Mr.  Boulton 
obtained  a  patent,  was  an  important  method  for  raising  water  and 
other  fluids  by  impulse ;  the  specification  of  which  is  published  in 
the  ninth  volume  of  the  Repertory  of  tjje  Arts.  It  had  been  de- 
monstrated by  Daniel  Bernouilli,  that  water  flowing  through  a  pipe 
and  arriving  at  a  part  in  which  the  pipe  is  suddenly  contracted, 
would  have  its  velocity  at  first  very  greatly  increased;  but  no 
practical  application  of  the  principle  appears  to  have  been  at- 
tempted until  1792,  by  an  apparatus  set  up  by  Mr.  Whitehurst  at 
Oulton,  in  Cheshire.  To  this  Mr.  Boulton  added  a  number  of  in- 
genious modifications. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  nicety  and  skill  displayed  in  some  of 
the  articles  made  by  Mr.  Boulton,  the  following  anecdote  is  re- 


MATTHEW  BOULTON.  329 

lated : — He  visited  France  on  a  certain  occasion,  for  the  purpose 
of  attending  a  celebrated  mechanical  fair  that  was  about  taking 
place ;  at  which  he  begged  to  be  allowed  to  exhibit  a  needle  of 
his  own  making,  at  the  same  time  submitting  it  to  the  examiners 
of  works  intended  for  this  public  display,  who  one  and  all  pro- 
nounced  it  to  be,  though  well-shaped  and  finely  polished,  but  a 
"  common  needle,"  and  not  worthy  of  appearing  amongst  the  splen- 
did and  ingenious  improvements  and  inventions  that  usually  graced 
the  fair.  "  Gentlemen,"  observed  Mr.  Boulton,  "  my  needle  is 
well  worthy  of  appearance  amongst  your  promised  novelties  ;  only 
allow  it  to  be  exhibited  with  them  now,  and  I  will  afterwards  show 
you  the  reason  why." 

An  unwilling  assent  to  this  request  was  finally  obtained ;  but 
when  the  fair  closed,  and  the  prizes  were  to  be  awarded,  the  arbi- 
trators triumphantly  asked,  "  where  was  Mr.  Boulton's  needle  ? 
and  what  were  those  striking  merits  which  everybody  had  failed 
to  discover  ?"  Thereupon  Mr.  Boulton  again  presented  it  to  them 
for  inspection,  with  a  magnifying  glass,  begging  them  to  state 
whether  they  observed  roughness  or  wrinkle  upon  its  surface. 
The  umpires  returning  it,  said,  "  Far  from  it ;  for  that  its  sole 
merit  seemed  to  lie  in  its -exquisite  polish."  "  Behold,  then,"  said 
this  ingenious  man,  "  its  undiscoverable  merit ;  and  whilst  I  prove 
to  you  that  I  made  no  vain  boast  of  its  claim  to  your  attention, 
you  will  learn,  perhaps,  not  to  judge  so  readily  again  by  mere  ex- 
terior."  He  then  unscrewed  the  needle,  when  another  appeared 
of  as  exquisite  a  workmanship  ;  and,  to  the  astonished  eyes  of 
the  Frenchmen,  about  half  a  dozen  beautiful  needles  were  thus 
turned  out,  neatly  and  curiously  packed  within  each  other ! — a 
miracle  of  art  that  seems  to  rival  all  we  ever  read  of, — a  truly 
"  multum  in  parvo !"  Mr.  Boulton  triumphed  in  his  turn,  and 
carried  off  the  prize  which  his  delicate  workmanship  so  richly 
deserved. 

Mr.  Boulton  appeared  at  St.  James1  on  a  levee  day :  •  "  Well, 
Mr.  Boulton,"  said  the  king,  "  I  am  glad  to  see  you ;  what  new 
project  have  you  got  now  ?"  "I  am,"  said  Mr.  Boulton,  "  manu- 
facturing a  new  article  that  kings  are  very  fond  of."  "  Aye  !  aye  ! 
Mr.  Boulton,  what's  that  ?"  "  It  is  power,  and  please  your  ma- 
jesty." "  Power  ! — Mr.  Boulton,  we  like  power,  that's  true  ;  but 
what  do  you  mean  ?"  "  Why,  sir,  I  mean  the  power  of  steam  to 
move  machines."  His  majesty  appeared  pleased,  and  laughing, 
said,  "Very  good;  go  on,  go  on." 

After  a  life  devoted  to  the  advancement  of  the  useful  arts  and 
the  commercial  interests  of  his  country,  the  subject  of  our  memoir 
died  on  the  17th  of  August,  1809,  in  the  eighty-first  year  of  his 


330  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

age,  and  was  buried  at  Handsworth,  near  Soho  ;  his  funeral  being 
followed  by  six  hundred  workmen,  each  of  whom  received  a  silver 
medal,  struck  to  commemorate  the  event. 

Mr.  Boulton  presents  us  with  an  example  of  the  vast  influence 
and  effects  that  may  be  produced  upon  society  by  the  well-directed 
powers  of  a  great  mind  abundantly  stored  with  resources,  but  dis- 
daining the  selfish  and  narrow  views  that  might  have  contracted 
its  usefulness,  had  he  neglected  to  call  to  his  aid  the  genius  of  a 
Watt,  and  others  equally  eminent  in  their  spheres.  His  private 
character  was  very  amiable ;  and  in  his  manners  and  conversation 
he  is  said  to  have  been  extremely  fascinating. 


THOMAS    TELFORD. 

IT  is  to  the  energies  of  genius  in  humble  life  that  science  is 
chiefly  indebted  for  its  most  valuable  discoveries,  and  extension 
of  its  empire.  The  names  of  Brindley,  Watt,  and  Arkwright 
will  never  be  forgotten  ;  and  with  them,  and  others  equally  dis- 
tinguished, will  henceforth  rank  Telford,  a  civil  engineer,  and 
constructor  of  public  works,  unsurpassed  in  any  country. 

Thomas  Telford  was  born  in  the  year  1757,  in  the  parish  of 
Westerkirks,  in  the  pastoral  vale  of  Eskdale,  a  district  in  the 
county  of  Dumfries,  in  Scotland.  His  parents,  although  they  oc- 
cupied an  humble  station  in  the  walks  of  life,  were  respected  and 
beloved  by  all  who  knew  them.  The  outset  of  the  life  of  their 
son  Thomas  corresponded  to  their  situation  in  society,  and  was 
strikingly  humble  and  obscure  in  comparison  with  its  close.  He 
began  the  world  as  a  working  stone-mason  in  his  native  parish, 
and  for  a  long  time  was  only  remarkable  for  the  neatness  with 
which  he  cut  the  letters  upon  those  frail  sepulchral  memorials, 
which  "  teach  the  rustic  moralist  to  die." 

His  occupation,  fortunately,  afforded  a  greater  number  of  leisure 
hours  than  what  are  usually  allowed  by  such  laborious  employ- 
ments, and  these  young  Telford  turned  to  the  utmost  advantage  in 
his  power.  Having  previously  acquired  the  elements  of  learning, 
he  spent  all  his  spare  time  in  poring  over  such  volumes  as  fell  in 
his  way,  with  no  better  light  than  was  afforded  by  the  cottage  fire. 
Under  these  circumstances,  his  mind  took  a  direction  not  uncom- 
mon among  rustic  youths  :  he  became  a  noted  rhymster  in  the 
homely  style  of  Ramsay  and  Ferguson,  and  while  still  a  very 


THOMAS  TELFORD.  331 

young  man,  contributed  verses  to  Ruddiman's  Weekly  Magazine, 
under  the  unpretending  signature  of  "  Eskdale  Tarn."  In  one 
of  these  compositions  which  was  addressed  to  Burns,  he  sketched 
his  own  character,  and  his  own  ultimate  fate  : — 

Nor  pass  the  tentie  curious  lad, 
Who  o'er  the  ingle  hangs  his  head, 
And  begs  of  neighbors  books  to  read ; 

For  hence  arise, 
Thy  country's  sons,  who  far  are  spread, 

Baith  bold  and  wise. 

Though  Mr.  Telford  afterwards  abandoned  the  thriftless  trade 
of  versifying,  he  is  said  to  have  retained  through  life  a  strong 
"  frater  feeling11  for  the  corps,  which  he  showed  in  a  particular 
manner  on  the  death  of  Burns,  in  exertions  for  the  benefit  of  the 
family. 

Having  completed  his  apprenticeship  as  a  stone  mason,  in  his 
native  place,  he  repaired  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  found  employ- 
ment, and  continued  with  unremitting  application  to  study  the 
principles  of  architecture  agreeable  to  the  rules  of  science.  Here 
he  remained  three  or  four  years,  when  having  made  a  considera- 
ble proficiency,  he  left  the  Scottish  capital,  and  went  to  London, 
under  the  patronage  of  Sir  William  Pulteney,  and  the  family  of 
Pasley,  who  were  townsmen  of  Telford. 

He  now  found  himself  in  a  scene  which  presented  scope  for 
his  industry  and  talent.  Fortunately,  he  did  not  long  remain  un- 
noticed, or  unemployed.  His  progress  was  not  rapid,  but  steady, 
and  always  advancing  ;  and  every  opportunity  for  displaying  his 
taste,  science,  and  genius,  extended  his  fame,  and  paved  the  way 
to  new  enterprises  and  acquisitions.  The  first  public  employment 
in  which  he  was  engaged,  was  that  of  superintending  some  works 
belonging  to  government,  in  Portsmouth  Dock  Yard,  The  duties 
of  this  undertaking  were  discharged  with  so  much  fidelity  and 
care,  as  to  give  complete  satisfaction  to  the  commissioners,  and  to 
ensure  the  future  exercise  of  his  talents  and  services.  Hence, 
in  1787,  he  was  appointed  surveyor  of  public  works  in  the  rich 
and  extensive  county  of  Salop,  which  situation  he  retained  until 
his  decease. 

A  detail  of  the  steps  by  which  Mr.  Telford  subsequently  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  profession  of  engineering,  would,  most 
likely,  only  tire  our  readers.  It  is  allowed  on  all  hands,  that  his 
elevation  was  owing  solely  to  his  consummate  ability  and  perse- 
vering industry,  unless  we  are  to  allow  a  share  in  the  process  to 
the  very  strict  integrity  which  marked  his  career.  His  works 

23* 


332  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

are  so  numerous  all  over  Great  Britain,  that  there  is  hardly  a 
county  in  England,  Wales,  or  Scotland,  in  which  they  may  not 
be  pointed-  out. 

Nor  was  the  British  empire  alone  benefited  by  Mr.  Telford's 
genius.  In  the  year  1808,  he  was  employed  by  the  Swedish 
government  to  survey  the  ground,  and  lay  out  an  inland  naviga- 
tion through  the  central  parts  of  that  kingdom.  The  design  of 
this  undertaking  was  to  connect  the  great  fresh  water  lakes,  and 
'to  form  a  direct  communication  by  water,  between  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Baltic. 

Mr.  Telford's  fame  as  an  engineer  has  been  principally  spread 
in  Great  Britain  by  his  great  work,  the  Dublin  road  from  London 
to  Holyhead,  including  the  Menai  and  Conway  bridges.  The 
Menai  bridge,  one  of  the  greatest  wonders  of  art  in  the  world, 
is  unquestionably  the  most  imperishable  monument  of  his  capacity 
for  extensive  undertakings.  This  bridge  is  constructed  over  the 
small  strait  of  the  sea,  which  intervenes  between  the  mainland 
of  North  Wales,  and  the  island  of  Anglesea,  and  carries  onward 
the  road  to  Holy  head.  Before  its  erection,  the  communication 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  ferry  boats,  and  was  therefore  subject 
to  delays  and  dangers.  The  bridge  is  at  a  point  near  the  town 
of  Bangor,  from  near  which  its  appearance  is  strikingly  grand. 
It  is  built  partly  of  stone  and  partly  of  iron,  on  the  suspension 
principle,  and  consists  of  seven  stone  arches,  exceeding  in  magni- 
tude every  work  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  They  connect  the 
land  with  the  two  main  piers,  which  rise  53  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  road,  over  the  top  of  which  the  chains  are  suspended,  each 
chain  being  1714  feet  from  the  fastenings  in  the  rock.  The  first 
three-masted  vessel  passed  under  the  bridge  in  1826.  Her  top- 
masts were  nearly  as  high  as  a  frigate  ;  but  they  cleared  12|  feet 
below  the  centre  of  the  roadway.  The  suspending  power  of  the 
chains  was  calculated  at  2016  tons ;  the  total  weight  of  each 
chain,  121  tons. 

This  stupendous  undertaking  occasioned  Mr.  Telford  more  in- 
tense thought  than  any  other  of  his  works.  He  told  a  friend  that 
his  state  of  anxiety  for  a  short  time  previous  to  the  opening  of  the 
bridge  was  so  extreme,  that  he  had  but  little  sound  sleep,  and  that 
a  much  longer  continuance  of  that  condition  of  mind  must  have 
undermined  his  health.  Not  that  he  had  any  reason  to  doubt  the 
strength  and  stability  of  every  part  of  the  structure,  for  he  had 
employed  all  the  precautions  that  he  could  imagine  useful,  as  sug- 
gested by  his  own  experience  and  consideration,  or  by  the  zeal 
and  talents  of  his  very  able  and  faithful  assistants  ;  yet  the  bare 
possibility,  that  some  weak  point  might  have  escaped  his  and  their 


THOMAS  TELFORD.  335 

vigilance  in  a  work  so  new,  kept  the-  whole  structure  constantly  in 
review  before  his  mind's  eye,  to  examine  if  he  could  discover  a 
point  that  did  not  contribute  its  share  to  the  perfection  of  the 
whole.  In  this,  as  in  all  his  great  works,  he  employed,  as  sub- 
engineers,  men  capable  of  appreciating  and  acting  on  his  ideas ; 
but  he  was  no  rigid  stickler  tor  his  own  plans,  for  he  most  readily 
acquiesced  in  the  reasonable  suggestions  of  his  assistants,  and 
thus  identified  them  with  the  success  of  the  work.  In  ascertain, 
ing  the  strength  of  the  materials  for  the  Menai  bridge,  he  em- 
ployed  men  of  the  highest  rank  for  scientific  character  and  attain- 
ments. 

The  genius  of  Telford,  as  has  been  stated,  was  not  confined  to 
his  profession.  Dr.  Currie  says,  in  his  life  of  Burns,  that  a  great 
number  of  manuscript  poems  were  found  among  the  papers  of 
Burns,  addressed  to  him  by  admirers  of  his  genius,  from  different 
parts  of  Britain,  as  well  as  Ireland  and  America.  Among  these 
was  a  poetical  epistle  of  superior  merit,  by  Telford,  and  addressed 
to  Burns,  and  in  the  versification  generally  employed  by  that  poet 
himself.  Its  object  is  to  recommend  him  to  other  subjects  of  a 
serious  nature,  similar  to  that  of  the  Cottar's  Saturday  Night,  and 
the  reader  will  find  that  the  advice  is  happily  enforced  by  example. 
We  extract  a  portion  of  it : — 

"  Pursue,  O  Burns,  thy  happy  style, 
'  Those  manner-painting  strains,'  that  while 
They  bear  me  northward  mony  a  mile, 
Recall  the  days 
When  tender  joys,  with  pleasing  smile, 

Blest  my  young  ways. 

I  see  my  fond  companions  rise  ; 

I  join  the  happy  village  joys ; 

I  see  our  green  hills  touch  the  skies, 

And  through  the  wood 
I  hear  the  river's  rushing  noise — 

Its  roaring  flood. 

No  distant  Swiss  with  warmer  glow 
E'er  heard  his  native  music  flow, 
Nor  could  his  wishes  stronger  grow 

Than  still  have  mine, 
When  up  this  rural  mount  I  go 

With  songs  of  thine. 

O  happy  bard  !  thy  generous  flame 
Was  given  to  raise  thy  country's  fame  ; 
For  this  thy  charming  numbers  came — 

Thy  matchless  lays : 
Then  sing,  and  save  her  virtuous  name 

To  latest  days." 


35t5  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

Mr.  Telford  was  not  more  remarkable  for  his  great  professional 
abilities,  than  for  his  sterling  worth  in  private  life.  His  easiness 
of  access,  and  the  playfulness  of  his  disposition,  even  to  the  close 
of  life,  endeared  him  to  a  numerous  circle  of  friends,  including 
all  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  time.  He  was  the  patron 
of  merit  in  others,  wherever  it  was  to  be  found  ;  and  he  was  the 
means  of  raising  many  deserving  individuals  from  obscurity  to 
situations  where  their  talents  were  seen,  and  soon  appreciated. 
Up  to  the  last  period  of  his  life,  he  was  fond  of  young  men,  and 
of  their  company,  provided  they  delighted  in  learning.  His 
punctuality  was  universal. 

In  the  course  of  his  very  active  life,  he  found  time  to  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  Latin,  French,  and  German  languages.  He 
understood  Algebra  well,  but  thought  it  led  too  much  to  abstrac- 
tion, and  too  little  to  practice.  Mathematical  investigation  he 
also  held  rather  cheaply,  and  always,  when  practicable,  resorted 
to  experiment  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  any  plans  on 
which  il  was  his  business  to  decide.  He  delighted  to  employ  the 
vast  in  nature,  yet  did  not  despise  minutw,  a  point  too  seldom 
attended  to  by  projectors. 

For  some  years  before  his  death,  he  gradually  retired  from 
professional  employment,  and  he  latterly  amused  his  leisure  hours 
by  writing  a  detailed  account  of  the  principal  undertakings  which 
he  had  planned,  and  lived  to  see  executed.  The  immediate  cause 
of  Mr.  Telford1s  death  was  a  repetition  of  severe  bilious  attacks, 
to  which  he  had  for  some  years  been  subject,  and  which,  at  length, 
proved  fatal.  His  life,  prolonged  by  temperance  and  cheerfulness, 
at  length  drew  to  a  close,  and  he  expired  at  his  house,,  in  Abing- 
don  street,  Westminster,  September  2d,  1834. 


EDMUND   CARTWRIGHT, 

THE  INVENTOR  OF  THE  POWER-LOOM. 

EDMUND  CARTWRIGHT  was  born  in  the  year  1743,  and  was  the 
fourth  son  of  William  Cartwright,  Esq.  of  Marnham,  in  Notting- 
hamshire. Being  intended  for  the  church,  Edmund  at  the  usual 
age  was  entered  of  University  College,  Oxford  ;  from  whence  he 
was  subsequently  elected  a  Fellow  of  Magdalen  College.  He  early 
distinguished  himself  by  his  literary  attainments,  an  evidence  of 


EDMUND   CARTWRIGHT.  337 

which  he  gave  to  the  world  while  yet  a  young  man  by  the  publica- 
tion of  a  small  volume  of  poems,  which  was  very  favorably  re- 
ceived. About  the  year  1774,  also,  he  became  a  contributor  to 
the  Monthly  Review ;  for  which  he  continued  to  write  during  the 
following  ten  years. 

For  the  first  forty  years  of  his  life  he  had  never  given  any  at- 
tention to  the  subject  of  mechanics  ;  although,  as  was  recollected 
long  afterwards,  his  genius  for  invention  in  that  department  had 
once  displayed  itself,  while  at  his  father^  house- during  one  of  his 
college  vacations,  in  some  improvements  which  he  made  on  an 
agricultural  machine  which  happened  to  attract  his  notice.  But 
this  exercise  of  his  ingenuity,  being  out  of  the  line  of  his  pursuits 
at  that  time,  led  to  no  other  attempts  of  the  kind,  nor  to  any  far- 
ther application  of  his  thoughts  to  such  matters. 

The  circumstances  which  many  years  after  this  led  him  to  the 
invention  of  his  weaving  machine,  or  power-loom,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  cannot  be  better  described  than  they  have  been  by  himself 
in  the  following  statement, — first  printed  in  the  Supplement  to  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  "  Happening,"  he  says,  "  to  be  at  Mat- 
lock  in  the  summer  of  1784, 1  fell  in  company  with  some  gentle- 
men of  Manchester,  when  the  conversation  turned  on  Arkwrighf  s 
spinning  machinery.  One  of  the  company  observed  that  as  soon 
as  Arkwright's  patent  expired,  so  many  mills  would  be  erected, 
and  so  much  cotton  spun,  that  hands  would  never  be  found  to 
weave  it.  To  this  observation  I  replied,  that  Arkwright  must  then 
set  his  wits  to  work  to  invent  a  weaving-mill.  This  brought  on  a 
conversation  upon  the  subject,  in  which  the  Manchester 'gentlemen 
unanimously  agreed  that  the  thing  was  impracticable  ;  and  in-  de- 
fence of  their  opinion  they  adduced  arguments  which  I  was  cer- 
tainly incompetent  to  answer,  or  even  to  comprehend,  being  totally 
ignorant  of  the  subject,  having  never  at  the  time  seen  a  person 
weave.  I  controverted,  however,  the  impracticability  of  the  thing 
by  remarking  that  there  had  been  lately  exhibited  in  London  an 
automaton  figure  which  played  at  chess.  Now  you  will  not  assert, 
gentlemen,  said  I,  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  construct  a  machine 
that  shall  weave,  than  one  that  shall  make  all  the  variety  of  moves 
that  are  required  in  that  complicated  game.  Some  time  afterwards 
a  particular  circumstance  recalling  this  conversation  to  my  mind, 
it  struck  me  that,  as  in  plain  weaving,  according  to  the  conception 
I  then  had  of  the  business,  there  could  be  only  three  movements, 
which  were  to  follow  each  other  in  succession,  there  could  be  little 
difficulty  in  producing  and  repeating  them.  Full  of  these  ideas,  I 
immediately  employed  a  carpenter  and  smith  to  carry  them  into 
effect.  As  soon  as  the  machine  was  finished,  I  got  a  weaver  to  put 


338  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

in  the  warp,  which  was  of  such  materials  as  sail-cloth  is  usually 
made  of.  To  my  great  delight,  a  piece  of  cloth,  such  as  it  was, 
was  the  produce.  As  I  had  never  before  turned  my  thoughts  to 
mechanism,  either  in  theory  or  practice,  nor  had  seen  a  loom  at 
work,  nor  knew  any  thing  of  its  construction,  you  will  readily  sup. 
pose  that  my  first  loom  must  have  been  a  most  rude  piece  of  ma- 
chinery. The  warp  was  laid  perpendicularly,  the  reed  fell  with  a 
force  of  at  least  half  a  hundred  weight,  and  the  springs  which  threw 
the  shuttle  were  strong  enough  to  have  thrown  a  Congreve  rocket. 
In  short,  it  required  the  strength  of  two  powerful  men  to  work  the 
machine,  at  a  slow  rate,  and  only  for  a  short  time.  Conceiving  in 
my  simplicity  that  I  had  accomplished  all  that  was  required,  I  then 
secured  what  I  thought  a  most  valuable  property  by  a  patent,  4th 
of  April,  1785.  This  being  done,  I  then  condescended  to  see  how 
other  people  wove ;  and  you  will  guess  my  astonishment  when  I 
compared  their  easy  modes  of  operation  with  mine.  Availing 
myself,  however,  of  what  I  then  saw,  I  made  a  loom  in  its  general 
principles  nearly  as  they  are  now  made.  But  it  was  not  till  the 
year  1787,  that  I  completed  my  invention,  when  I  took  out  my 
last  weaving  patent,  August  the  1st  of  that  year.11 

Dr.  Cartwrighfs  children  still  remember  often  seeing  their  father 
about  this  time  walking  to  and  fro  apparently  in  deep  meditation, 
and  occasionally  throwing  his  arms  from  side  to  side ;  on  which 
they  used  to  be  told  that  he  was  thinking  of  weaving  and  throwing 
the  shuttle.  From  the  moment  indeed  when  his  attention  was  first 
turned  to  the  invention  of  the  power-loom,  mechanical  contrivance 
became  the  grand  occupying  subject  of  his  thoughts.  With  that 
sanguineness  of  disposition  which  seems  to  be  almost  a  necessary 
part  of  the  character  of  an  inventor,  he  looked  upon  difficulties, 
when  he  met  with  them  in  any  of  his  attempts,  as  only  affording 
his  genius  an  occasion  for  a  more  distinguished  triumph  ;  nor  did 
he  allow  even  repeated  failures  for  a  moment  to  dishearten  him. 
Some  time  •  after  he  had  brought  his  first  loom  to  perfection,  a 
manufacturer,  who  had  called  upon  him  to  see  it  at  work,  after 
expressing  his  admiration  of  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  it,  remarked 
that,  wonderful  as  was  Mr.  Cartwright's  mechanical  skill,  there 
was  one  thing  that  would  effectually  baffle  him, — the  weaving, 
namely,  of  patterns  in  chec.ks,  or,  in  other  words,  the  combining, 
in  the  same  web,  of  a  pattern,  or  fancy  figure,  with  the  crossing 
colors  which  constitute  the  check.  Mr.  Cartwright  made  no  reply 
to  this  observation  at  the  time ;  but  some  weeks  after,  on  receiving 
a  second  visit  from  the  same  person,  he  had  the  pleasure  of  show- 
ing him  a  piece  of  muslin,  of  the  description  mentioned,  beautifully 
executed  by  machinery.  The  man  is  said  to  have  been  so  much 


EDMUND  CARTWRIGHT.  339 

astonished,  that  he  roundly  declared  his  conviction  that  some 
agency  more  than  human  must  have  been  called  in  to  assist  on 
the  occasion. 

The  weaving  factory  which  was  erected  at  Doncaster,  by  some 
of  Cartwrighf  s  friends,  with  his  license,  was  unsuccessful ;  and 
another  establishment  containing  five  hundred  looms,  built  at  Man. 
Chester,  was  destroyed  in  1790  by  an  exasperated  mob.  The  in- 
vention  had  surmounted  all  opposition  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and 
is  stated  then  to  have  increased  in  use  so  rapidly  as  to  perform  the 
labor  of  two  hundred  thousand  men  ! 

Cartvvright's  next  invention  was  to  comb  wool  by  machinery,  which 
excited  if  possible  a  still  greater  ferment  among  the  working  classes 
than  even  the  power-looms.  The  whole  body  of  wool  combers 
petitioned  parliament  to  suppress  the  obnoxious  machines,  but 
without  effect.  These  machines  began  to  be  used  by  some  manu- 
facturers, who  at  the  same  time  attempted  to  evade  Cart w right's 
claim  as  their  inventor.  After  a  trial  which  occupied  twenty-six 
hours,  he  established  his  right,  and  gained  a  verdict  of  one  thou- 
sand pounds  against  the  pirates. 

For  several  other  inventions  in  agriculture  and  manufactures  he 
took  out  patents,  and  for  others  premiums  were  bestowed  upon 
him  by  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  and  the  Board 
of  Agriculture.  Even  the  steam  engine  engaged  his  attention ; 
and  an  account  of  some  improvements  which  he  proposed  in  its 
mechanism  may  be  found  in  Reese's  Cyclopedia.  Indeed,  so  long 
as  forty  years  ago,  while  residing  at  Eltham  in  Lincolnshire,  he 
used  frequently  to  tell  his  son  that,  if  he  lived  to  be  a  man,  he 
would  see  both  ships  and  land-carriages  impelled  by  steam.  It  is 
also  certain  that  at  that  early  period  he  had  constructed  a  model 
of  a  steam  engine  attached  to  a  barge,  which  he  explained  about 
the  year  1793,  in  the  presence  of  his  family,  to  Robert  Fulton, 
then  a  student  of  painting  under  West.  Even  so  late  as  the  year 
1822,  Dr.  Cartwrightj  notwithstanding  his  very  advanced  age,  and 
although  his  attention  was  much  occupied  by  other  philosophical 
speculations,  was  actively  engaged  in  endeavoring  to  contrive  a 
plan  of  propelling  land-carriages  by  steam. 

His  death,  however,  at  Hastings,  in  October,  1823,  prevented 
the  completion  of  this,  as  well  as  of  many  other  designs  in  the 
prosecution  of  which  he  had  been  employed.  His  enthusiasm  for 
mechanical  invention  continued  unabated  to  the  last ;  and  indeed 
his  general  energy  both  of  mind  and  body  was  very  little  impaired 
up  to  within  a  short  period  of  his  death.  In  a  letter  to  his  brother, 
Major  Cartwright,  dated  24th  April,  1819,  he  says,  "  I  this  day 
entered  into  my  77th  year  in  as  good  health  and  spirits,  thank 


340  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

God,  as  I  have  done  on  any  one  birthday  for  the  last  half  century. 
I  am  moving  about  my  farm -from  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  till 
four  in  the  afternoon,  without  suffering  the  least  fatigue.  I  sent 
in  my  claim  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  for  their  premium  for  a 
cure  of  the  mildew  on  wheat,  but  have  not  yet  heard  that  it  was 
admitted.  I  don't  know  whether  I  ever  mentioned  to  you  a  ma- 
chine for  dibbling  or  planting  wheat,  which  I  have  brought  to  great 
perfection.  I  have  also  a  very  material  improvement  on  the 
stocks  respecting  ploughs  and  wheel-carriages  ;  but  of  this  I  shall 
say  nothing  till  I  have  brought  it  to  the  proof,  which  I  hope  to  do 
very  shortly ;  when  you  shall  be  immediately  informed  of  the  re- 
•sult,  whether  favorable  or  not.'1  The  following  verses,  also,  which 
he  sent  to  a  friend  not  long  before  his  death,  will  show  at  once 
the  undiminished  ardor  and  activity  of  his  mind,  and  the  generous 
and  philanthropic  motives  by  which  his  enthusiasm  was  sustained 
and  directed : — 

"  Since  even  Newton  owns  that  all  he  wrought 
Was  due  to  industry  and  patient  thought, 
What  shall  restrain  the  impulse  which  I  feel 
To  forward,  as  I  may,  the  public  weal  ? 
By  his  example  fired,  to  break  away, 
In  search  of  truth,  through  darkness  into  day  ? 
He  tried,  on  venturous  wing,  the  loftiest  flight, 
An  eagle  soaring  to  the  fount  of  light  1 
I  cling  to  earth,  to  earth-born  arts  confined, 
A  worm  of  science  of  the  humblest  kind. 
Our  powers,  though  wide  apart  as  earth  and  heaven, 
For  different  purposes  alike  were  given : 
Though  mine  the  arena  of  inglorious  fame, 
Where  pride  and  folly  would  the  strife  disdain, 
With  mind  unwearied  still  will  I  engage 
In  spite  of  failing  vigor  and  of  age, 
Nor  quit  the  combat  till  I  quit  the  stage : 
Or,  if  in  idleness  my  life  shall  close, 
Let  well-earned  victory  justify  repose !'" 

The  disposition  of  this  excellent  man,  indeed,  naturally  carried 
him  throughout  his  life  to  promote,  by  every  means  in  his  power, 
the  benefit  of  his  fellow  creatures  ;  and  the  following  incident  is 
perhaps  worthy  of  being  recorded,  as  illustrating  how  this  tendency 
used  to  display  itself  in  other  parts  of  his  conduct,  as  well  as  in 
his  zeal  for  mechanical  improvements.  While  he  held  the  living 
of  Goadly  Maxwood,  in  Leicestershire,  he  applied  himself  so  as- 
siduously to  the  study  of  medicine  that  he  acquired  extensive 
knowledge  and  eminent  skill  in  that  science,  and  was  in  the  habit 
of  prescribing  to  his  poorer  parishioners  with  great  success. 

Actuated  by  such  feelings  as  those  we  have  described,  Dr. 
Cartwright  was  as  free  as  any  man  who  ever  lived  from  jealousy 
or  illiberally  towards  other  inventors.  In  fact,  it  may  be  safely 


EDMUND  CARTWRIGHT.  341 

asserted,  that  had  he  not  carried  his  frankness  and  want  of  suspi- 
cion, as  well  as  his  indifference  to  pecuniary  gains,  beyond  the 
limits  of  worldly  prudence,  his  ingenious  contrivances  would  in 
all  probability  have  been  productive  of  much  greater  benefit  to 
himself  than  they  ever  actually  were.  So  careless  was  he  in  re- 
gard to  retaining  in  his  own  possession  the  valuable  ideas  with 
which  his  mind  was  continually  teeming,  that  he  has  been  fre- 
quently known  to  have  given  the  most  important  assistance  by  his 
suggestions  to  other  persons  engaged  like  hirqself  in  mechanical 
pursuits,  and  afterwards  to  have  forgotten  the  circumstance  as 
entirely  as  if  it  had  never  happened.  Nay,  so  completely  did 
what  he  was  engaged  about  at  the  moment  occupy  his  mind,  that 
he  sometimes  forgot  his  own  inventions,  and  other  productions, 
of  an  older  date,  even  when  his  attention  was  particularly  called 
to  them.  One  day,  one  of  his  daughters  having  chanced  to  repeat 
in  his  presence  some  lines  from  a  poem  entitled  the  "  Prince  of 
Peace,"  which  appeared  in  his  volume  already  mentioned,  he  ex- 
claimed, to  her  surprise  and  amusement,  "  Those  are  beautiful 
lines,  child  ;  where  did  you  meet  with  them  ?"  On  another  occa- 
sion, being  shown  the  model  of  a  machine,  he  examined  it  with 
great  attention,  and  at  last  observed,  that  the  inventor  must  have 
been  a  man  of  great  ingenuity,  and  that  he  himself  should  feel 
very  proud  if  he  had  been  the  author  of  the  contrivance  ;  nor  could 
he  be  immediately  convinced  of  what  was  proved  to  be  the  case, 
namely,  that  it  was  a  machine  of  his  own. 

Dr.  Cart wright  was  defrauded  of  the  pecuniary  profits  which 
he  might  reasonably  have  expected  from  his  great  invention  of  the 
power-loom,  by  various  accidents,  and  especially  by  the  burning 
of  a  manufactory,  containing  five  hundred  of  his  machines,  almost 
immediately  after  it  was  built.  It  may  also  be  added,  that  after 
he  had  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  weaving  by  machinery, 
other  inventors  applied  themselves  to  the  devising  of  contrivances 
for  that  purpose  slightly  different  from  his — a  comparatively  easy 
task,  even  where  the  new  invention  was  not  merely  a  disguised 
infringement  of  his  patent,  while  in  those  cases  in  which  it  was  in 
reality  nothing  more  than  such  an  infringement,  it  was  yet  so  pro- 
tected, that  it  could  hardly  be  reached  and  put  down  as  such.  On 
these  and  other  accounts,  and  in  no  small  degree  owing  to  Dr. 
Cartwright's  carelessness  about  his  own  interests,  the  power-loom 
only  began,  in  point  of  fact,  to  be  extensively  introduced  about  the 
year  1801,  the  very  year  in  which  his  patent  expired.  So  gene- 
rally, however,  was  it  felt  among  those  best  entitled  to  express  an 
opinion  on  the  subject,  that  to  him  really  belonged  the  merit  of  the 
invention,  that  in  the  year  1808,  several  merchants  and  manufac- 

24 


342  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

turers  of  Manchester  and  its  neighborhood,  to  none  of  whom  he 
was  personally  known,  held  a  meeting  to  consider  the  propriety 
of  presenting  to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  a  memorial  of  his  emi- 
nent services,  and  of  the  losses  he  had  sustained  through  the  pira- 
cies and  other  unfortunate  circumstances  to  which  we  have  alluded. 
In  consequence  of  this  and  other  applications  in  his  favor,  the  sum 
of  ten  thousand  pounds  was  soon  after  granted  him  by  parliament. 
An  amount,  although  munificent  as  a  present,  yet  barely  adequate 
even  to  repay  the  sums  the  doctor  had  expended  in  his  experi- 
ments ;  and  his  family,  after  all,  reaped  no  pecuniary  benefit 
from  his  ingenious  and  persevering  labors.  This  national  recog- 
nition of  his  claims  may  be  taken  as  a  sufficient  answer  to  some 
attempts  that  have  been  occasionally  made  to  rob  Dr.  Cartwright 
of  the  credit  of  having  been  the  author  of  one  of  the  most  valuable 
presents  ever  made  to  the  manufacturing  industry  of  his  country. 
As  a  man  of  education  and  literary  habits,  the  inventor  of  the 
power-loom,  notwithstanding  his  deviation  from  his  original  track 
of  thought  and  study  when  he  began  to  give  his  attention  to  me- 
chanics, may  yet  be  said  to  have  come  even  to  that  new  line  of 
pursuit  with  certain  acquired  advantages.  He  brought  with  him 
at  least  a  mind  awakened  to  some  knowledge  of  its  own  powers 
by  the  general  cultivation  it  had  received,  and  not  undisciplined 
by  its  accustomed  exercises  to  habits  of  speculation  and  inquiry 


JOHN  WHITEHURST. 

THIS  individual,  whose  philosophical  and  mechanical  researches 
have  met  with  such  universal  attention,  was  born  in  Congleton,  in 
Cheshire,  April  10,  1713  :  he  was  the  son  of  a  clock  and  watch 
maker  of  the  same  name  in  that  town. 

Of  the  early  part  of  his  life  little  is  known.  He  who  dies  at  a 
very  advanced  age  leaves  few  behind  him  to  communicate  anec- 
dotes of  his  youth.  On  his  leaving  school,  where  the  education 
he  received  was  certainly  very  defective,  he  was  bred  up  by  his 
father  to  his  own  trade  ;  in  which,  as  in  other  mechanical  and  sci- 
entific pursuits,  he  soon  gave  intimations  of  future  eminence. 

At  about  the  age  of  twenty-one,  his  eagerness  after  new  ideas 
carried  him  to  Dublin,  having  heard  of  an  ingenious  piece  of  me- 
chanism in  that  city,  consisting  of  a  clock  with  certain  curious  ap- 
pendages, which  he  was  extremely  desirous  of  seeing,  and  no  less 


JOHN  WHITEHURST. 


JOHN  WHITEHURST.  345 

so  than  of  conversing  with  the  maker.  On  his  arrival,  however, 
he  could  neither  procure  a  sight  of  the  former,  nor  draw  the  least 
hint  from  the  latter  concerning  it.  Thus  disappointed,  he  thought 
of  an  expedient  to  accomplish  his  design.  He  accordingly  took 
up  his  residence  in  the  house  of  the  mechanic,  paying  the  more 
liberally  for  his  board,  as  he  had  hopes  of  thence  more  readily 
obtaining  the  indulgence  so  eagerly  wished  for.  As  happened,  he 
was  accommodated  with  a  room  directly  over  that  in  which  the 
favorite  piece  was  kept  carefully  locked.  The  so  long  wished  for 
opportunity  soon  occurred  ;  for  the  artist  being  one  day  employed 
in  examining  the  machine,  was  suddenly  called  down  stairs.  White- 
hurst,  ever  on  the  alert,  softly  slipped  into  the  room,  inspected  the 
machine,  and  having  comprehended  its  principles,  escaped  undis. 
covered  to  his  own  apartment.  His  curiosity  thus  gratified,  he 
shortly  bid  the  machinist  farewell,  and  returned  to  his  father  in 
England. 

About  two  years  after  his  adventure  in  Ireland,  he  left  the  place 
of  his  nativity,  and  entered  into  business  for  himself  at  Derby. 
His  reputation  as  a  clock  and  watch  maker  soon  became  very  ex- 
tended, and  his  character  as  a  citizen  such  that  he  was  enrolled  as 
burgess. 

He  was  also  consulted  in  almost  all  the  undertakings  in  the  coun- 
try round,  where  the  aid  of  superior  skill  in  mechanics,  pneumat- 
ics, and  hydraulics  was  required.  His  dwelling  became  the  resort 
of  the  ingenious  and  scientific  from  every  quarter,  and  frequently 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  impede  him  in  the  regular  prosecution  of  his 
pursuits. 

In  1775,  when  the  act  for  the  regulation  of  gold  coin  was  pass- 
ed, he  was  unexpectedly  appointed  to  the  office  of  stamper.  In 
1778,  he  published  his  "  Inquiry  into  the  Original  State  and  Form- 
ation of  the  Earth  ;"  being  a  work  of  many  years1  labor,  and  one 
by  which  he  obtained  considerable  reputation.  He  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  May  13,  1779.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  some  other  philosophical  societies,  which  admitted  him 
to  their  respective  bodies  without  his  previous  knowledge.  But  so 
remote  was  he  from  every  thing  that  might  savor  of  ostentation, 
that  this  circumstance  was  only  known  to  very  few  of  his  confiden- 
tial friends.  Previous  to  his  admission,  he  had  inserted  several 
different  papers  in  their  philosophical  transactions. 

In  the  summer  of  1783,  he  made  a  second  visit  to  Ireland,  with 
a  view  to  examine  the  Giant's  Causeway,  and  other  northern  parts 
of  that  island,  which  he  found  to  be  almost  entirely  composed  of 
volcanic  matter ;  an  account  and  representations  of  which  were 
inserted  in  the  second  edition  of  his  "  Inquiry."  During  this  ex- 


346  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

cursion  he  erected  an  engine  for  raising  water  from  a  well  to*  the 
summit  of  a  hill  in  a  bleaching  ground  at  Tullidoi,  in  the  county 
of  Tyrone.  This  engine  was  worked  by  a  current  of  water, 
and  for  its  utility  and  ingenuity  was  unequalled,  perhaps,  in  any 
country. 

In  1787  he  published  his  "  Attempt  towards  obtaining  Invariable 
Measures  of  Length,  Capacity,  and  Weight,  from  the  Mensura- 
tion of  Time." 

Though  for  some  years  previous  to  his  death  Mr.  Whitehurst 
felt  himself  declining,  yet  his  ever  active  mind  remitted  not  of  its 
accustomed  exertion.  Even  in  his  last  illness,  before  being  con- 
fined entirely  to  his  chamber,  he  was  proceeding  at  intervals  to 
complete  a  Treatise  on  Chimneys,  Ventilation,  and  Garden  Stoves, 
including  some  other  plans  for  promoting  the  health  and  comfort 
of  society.  He  was  sensible  of  his  approaching  dissolution;  and 
on  Monday,  February  18,  1788,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his 
age,  terminated  his  laborious  and  useful  life.  He  died  in  the  very 
house  where  had  recently  lived  and  died  another  celebrated  self- 
taught  genius,  James  Ferguson. 

However  respectable  Mr.  Whitehurst  may  have  been  in  mechan- 
ics, he  was  of  far  higher  account  with  his  acquaintances  and  friends 
on  the  score  of  his  moral  qualities.  To  say  nothing  of  the  upright- 
ness and  punctuality  of  his  dealings  in  all  transactions  relative  to 
business ;  few  men  have  been  known  to  possess  more  benevolent 
affections  than  he,  or,  being  possessed  of  such,  to  direct  them  more 
judiciously  to  their  proper  ends.  He  was  a  philanthropist  in  the 
truest  sense  of  the  word.  Though  well  known  to  many  of  the 
great,  to  whose  good  graces  flattery -is  generally  the  readiest  path, 
it  is  to  be  recorded  to  his  honor,  that  he  never  once  stooped  to 
that  degrading  mode  of  obtaining  favor,  which  he  regarded  as  the 
lowest  vice  of  the  lowest  mind.  He  had,  indeed,  a  settled  abhor- 
rence, not  of  flattery  only,  but  of  every  other  deviation  from  truth, 
at  whose  shrine  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  a  constant  worship- 
per. The  truth  of  things  he  was  daily,  more  or  less,  in  the  habit 
of  investigating,  and  truth  of  action  he  exemplified  in  the  whole 
tenor  of  a  long  and  singularly  useful  life. 


JAMES  HARGREAVES, 

THE   INVENTOR   OF   THE    SPINNING   JENNY. 

THIS  individual  was  a  weaver  at  Stand  Hill,  near  Blackburn : 
though  illiterate  and  humble,  he  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
great  inventors  and  improvers  of  the  cotton  manufacture.  His 
principal  invention,  and  one  which  showed  high  mechanical  genius, 
was  the  spinning  jenny ; — a  machine,  as  tradition  affirms,  which 
owed  its  title  to  a  fair  damsel  by  the  name  of  Jane.  The  date  of 
this  invention  was  some  years  before  Arkwright  obtained  the  patent 
for  his  water  frame ;  and  differs  so  completely  from  that  machine, 
that  there  can  be  no  suspicion  of  its  being  other  than  a  perfectly 
original  invention. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  explain  to  some  readers,  that  the  cotton 
was  formerly,  and  is  still,  reduced  from  the  state  of  the  fleecy  roll 
called  a  carding,  into  the  state  of  spun  thread,  by  repeated,  though 
similar  operations  ;  the  first  draws  out  the  carding,  and  gives  it  a 
very  slight  twist,  so  as  to  make  it  into  a  loose  thread,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  candle-wick,  in  which  state  it  is  called  a  roving  or 
slubbin ;  the  subsequent  processes  draw  out  the  roving  much  finer, 
and  at  length  reduce  'it  into  yarn. 

The  jenny,  like  Arkwright's  machine,  was  intended  to  spin  the 
roving  into  yarn ;  but,  unlike  Arkwright's,  was  incapable  of  being 
applied  to  the  preparation  of  the  roving  itself. 

Hargreaves  is  said  to  have  received  the  original  idea  of  his 
machine  from  seeing  a  one-thread  wheel  overturned  upon  the  floor, 
when  both  the  wheel  and  spindle  continued  to  revolve.  The  spindle 
was  thus  thrown  from  a  horizontal  into  an  upright  position ;  and 
the  thought  seems  to  have  struck  him,  that  if  a  number  of  spindles 
were  placed  upright,  and  side  by  side,  several  threads  might  be 
spun  at  once.  He  contrived  a  frame,  in  one  part  of  which  he 
placed  eight  rovings  in  a  row,  and  in  another  part  a  row  of  eight 
spindles.  The  rovings,  when  extended  to  the  spindles,  passed  be- 
tween two  horizontal  bars  of  wood  forming  a  clasp,  which  opened 
and  shut  somewhat  like  a  parallel  ruler ;  when  pressed  together, 
this  clasp  held  the  threads  fast.  A  certain  portion  of  roving  being 
extended  from  the  spindles  to  the  wooden  clasp,  the  clasp  was 
closed,  and  was  then  drawn  along  the  horizontal  frame  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  spindles,  by  which  the  threads  were 
lengthened  out,  and  reduced  to  the  proper  tenuity ;  this  was  done 

24* 


348  FOREIGN   MECHANICS. 

with  the  spinner's  left  hand,  and  his  right  hand,  at  the  same  time, 
turned  a  wheel,  which  caused  the  spindles  to  revolve  rapidly,  and 
thus  the  roving  was  spun  into  yarn.  By  returning  the  clasp  to  its 
first  situation,  and  letting  down  a  presser  wire,  the  yarn  was,  wound 
upon  the  spindle. 

With  this  admirable  machine,  though  at  first  rudely  constructed, 
Hargreaves  and  his  family  spun  weft  for  his  own  weaving.  Aware 
of  the  value  of  the  invention,  but  not  extending  his  ambition  to  a 
patent,  he  kept  it  as  secret  as  possible  for  a  time,  and  used  it 
merely  in  his  own  business.  A  machine  of  such  powers  could 
not,  however,  be  long  concealed  ;  but  when  it  became  the  subject 
of  rumor,  instead  of  gaining  for  its  author  admiration  and  grati- 
tude, the  spinners  raised  an  outcry  that  it  would  throw  multitudes 
out  of  employment,  and  a  mob  broke  into  Hargreave's  house,  and 
destroyed  his  jenny.  So  great  was  the  persecution  he  suffered, 
and  the  danger  in  which  he  was  placed,  that  this  victim  of  popular 
ignorance  was  compelled  to  flee,  as  the  inventor  of  the  fly -shuttle 
had  before  him.  Thus  the  neighborhood  where  the  machine  was 
invented  lost  the  benefit  of  it,  yet  without  preventing  its  general 
adoption ; — the  common  and  appropriate  punishment  of  the  igno- 
rance and  selfishness  which  oppose  mechanical  improvements. 

Hargreaves  retired  to  Nottingham  in  1768,  where  he  entered 
into  partnership  with  Mr.  Thomas  James,  a  joiner,  who  raised 
sufficient  money  to  enable  them  to  erect  a  small  mill.  He  took 
out  a  patent  for  the  jenny  in  1770,  the  year  after  Arkwright  had 
taken  out  his.  The  patent  was  "  for  a  method  of  making  a  wheel 
or  an  engine  of  an  entire  new  construction,  and  never  before  made 
use  of,  in  order  for  spinning,  drawing,  and  twisting  of  cotton,  and: 
to  be  managed  by  one  person  only ;  and  that  the  wheel  or  engine 
will  spin,  draw,  and  twist  sixteen  or  more  threads  at  one  time,  by 
a  turn  or  motion  of  one  hand  and  a  draw  of  the  other." 

The  following  is  the  inventor's  description  of  the  process : — 
"  One  person,  with  his  or  her  right  hand,  turns  the  wheel,  and 
with  the  left  hand  takes  hold  of  the  clasps,  and  therewith  draws  out 
the  cotton  from  the  slubbin  box ;  and  being  twisted  by  the  turn  of 
the  wheel  in  the  drawing  out,  then  a  piece  of  wood  is  lifted  by  the 
toe,  which  lets  down  a  presser  wire,  so  as  to  press  the  threads  so 
drawn  out  and  twisted,  in  order  to  wind  or  put  the  same  regularly 
upon  bobbins  which  are  placed  on  the  spindles."  The  number  of 
spindles  in  the  jenny  was  at  first  eight ;  when  the  patent  was  ob- 
tained it  was  sixteen ;  it  soon  came  to  be  twenty  or  thirty ;  and 
no  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  have  since  been  used. 

Before  quitting  Lancashire,  Hargreaves  had  made  a  few  jennies 
for  sale  j  and  the  importance  of  the  invention  being  universally 


JAMES  HARGREAVES.  349 

appreciated,  the  interests  of  the  manufacturers  and  weavers  brought 
it  into  general  use,  in  spite  of  all  opposition.  A  desperate  effort, 
though,  was  made  in  1779 — probably  in  a  period  of  temporary 
distress — to  put  down  the  machine.  A  mob  rose  and  scoured  the 
country  for  several  miles  around  Blackburn,  demolishing  the  jen- 
nies, and  with  them  all  the  carding  engines,  water  frames,  and 
every  machine  turned  by  water  or  horses.  It  is  said  the  rioters 
spared  the  jennies  which  had  only  twenty  spindles,  as  these  were 
by  this  time  admitted  to  be  useful,  but  those  with  a  greater  num. 
ber,  being  considered  mischievous,  were  destroyed,  or  cut  down  to 
the  prescribed  dimensions. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  not  merely  the  working  classes,  but 
even  the  middle  and  higher  ranks  of  people,  entertained  a  great 
dread  of  machinery.  Not  perceiving  the  tendency  of  any  inven- 
tion which  improved  and  cheapened  the  manufacture,  to  cause  an 
extended  demand  for  its  products,  and  thereby  to  give  employment 
to  more  hands  than  it  superseded,  those  classes  were  alarmed  lest 
the  poor  rates  should  be  burdened  with  workmen  thrown  idle. 
They  therefore  connived  at,  and  even  actually  joined  in  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  machinery,  and  did  all  in  their  power  to  screen  the 
rioters  from  punishment. 

This  devastating  outrage  left  effects  more  permanent  than  have 
usually  resulted  from  such  commotions.  Spinners  and  other  capi- 
talists were  driven  from  the  neighborhood  of  Blackburn  to  Man- 
chester and  other  places,  and  in  consequence  it  was  many  years 
before  cotton  spinning  was  resumed  at  Blackburn. 

Hargreaves  went  to  Nottingham  in  1768,  and  worked  for  a 
while  in  the  employment  of  Mr.  Shipley,  for  whom  he  secretly 
made  some  jennies  in  his  dwelling.  He  was  induced,  by  the 
offers  of  Mr.  Thomas  James,  to  enter  into  partnership  with  him ; 
and  the  latter  raised  sufficient  money,  on  mortgage  and  loan,  to 
build  a  small  mill  in  Hockley,  where  they  spun  yarn  for  the 
hosiers  with  the  jenny.  The  patent  was  obtained  in  1770. 

Finding  that  several  of  the  Lancashire  manufacturers  were 
using  the  jenny,  Hargreaves  gave  notice  of  actions  against  them : 
the  manufacturers  met,  and  sent  a  delegate  to  Nottingham,  who 
offered  Hargreaves  three  thousand  pounds  for  permission  tcr  use 
the  machine  ;  but  he  at  first  demanded  seven  thousand,  and  at  last 
stood  out  for  four  thousand.  The  negotiation  being  broken  off, 
the  actions  proceeded  ;  but  before  they  came  to  trial,  Hargreaves' 
attorney  was  informed  that  his  client,  before  leaving  Lancashire, 
had  sold  some  jennies  to  obtain  clothing  for  his  children,  of  whom 
he  had  six  or  seven.  In  consequence,  the  attorney  gave  up  the 
actions,  in  despair  of  obtaining  a  verdict. 


350  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

The  spinning  business  was  carried  on  by  the  partners  with  mo- 
derate  success,  till  the  death  of  Mr.  Hargreaves,  which  took  place 
at  his  own  house,  near  the  mill,  in  April,  1778.  In  his  will  he 
directed  a  guinea  to  be  given  to  the  vicar  for  preaching  his  funeral 
sermon.  His  widow  received  four  hundred  pounds  from  Mr. 
James,  for  her  husband^  share  in  the  business. 

It  is  a  consolation  to  the  admirers  of  genius  to  know,  that  this 
benefactor  to  his  country  was  enabled  to  live  in  comfort,  though 
not  in  affluence,  on  the  fruits  of  his  invention. 


JOSEPH   BRAMAH, 

THE    INVENTOR    OF   THE    HYDROSTATIC    PRESS. 

JOSEPH  BRAMAH,  one  of  the  greatest  mechanics  England  has 
ever  produced,  was  the  oldest  son  of  a  small  farmer,  and  was  born 
on  the  13th  of  April,  1749,  at  Stainsborough,  in  Yorkshire.  He 
exhibited  at  a  very  early  age  an  unusual  talent  for  mechanical 
contrivances,  and  succeeded,  when  quite  a  boy,  in  making  two 
violoncellos,  which  were  found  to  be  very  tolerable  instruments. 
His  hours  of  relaxation  from  the  business  of  the  farm  were  gene- 
rally spent  in  a  neighboring  blacksmith-shop,  between  whose 
tenant  and  himself  was  shared  the  merit  of  several  ingenious 
pieces  of  mechanism. 

An  accidental  lameness  in  his  ankles  unfitting  him  for  agricul- 
tural  labor,  he  was  apprenticed  in  his  sixteenth  year  to  a  carpenter 
and  joiner.  At  the  expiration  of  his  "  time,"  he  went  to  London 
in  search  of  employment,  where,  by  his  industry  and  exertions,  he 
soon  became  a  master.  His  now  extended  means  enabled  him  to 
indulge  his  mechanical  taste,  and  he  quickly  became  known  as  a 
man  possessing  a  fine  invention  as  well  as  great  executive  skill. 
In  1784,  he  produced  the  admirable  lock  which  bears  his  name, 
and  which  was  considered  the  most  perfect  mechanism  of  its  kind 
that  had  ever  been  produced,  and  even  to  this  day  is  scarcely 
rivalled  for  safety,  durability,  elegance,  and  simplicity.  The  pe- 
culiar character  of  this  lock  depends  on  the  arrangement  of  a 
number  of  levers,  or  sliders,  to  preserve,  when  at  rest,  a  uniform 
situation,  and  to  be  only  pressed  down  by  the  key  to  a  certain 
depth,  which  nothing  but  the  key  can  ascertain, — the  levers  not 
having  any  stop  to  retain  them  in  their  required  situation,  except 


JOSEPH  BRAMAH. 


351 


that  which  forms  part  of  the  key.  He  added  afterwards  some 
modifications,  for  allowing  the  key  to  be  varied  at  pleasure.  The 
report  that  one  of  these  locks  had  been  readily  opened  before  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  by  means  of  a  common 
quill,  was  a  gross  misrepresentation  of  the  fact ;  the  quill  having, 
in  reality,  been  previously  cut  into  the  required  shape  from  the 
true  key.  An  experiment  which  was  only  made  to  show  the  per- 
fection of  the  workmanship,  and  the  very  small  force  requisite  to 
overcome  the  resistance  when  properly  applied.  It  has  been 
stated  that  one  of  these  locks,  after  having  been  in  use  many 
years,  and  opened  and  locked  not  less  than  four  hundred  thousand 
times,  was  apparently  as  perfect  as  when  first  constructed.  The 
invention  for  which  he  will  probably  be  best  known  to  posterity, 
is  his  hydrostatic  press,  which  is  described  in  the  succeeding  para- 
graph :— 

The  principle  of  this  machine  is  this :  if  a  given  pressure,  as 
that  given  by  a  plug  forced  inwards  upon  a  square  inch  of  the 
surface  of  a  fluid  confined  in  a  vessel,  is  suddenly  communicated 
to  every  square  inch  of  the  vessel's  surface,  however  large,  and 
to  every  inch  of  the  surface  of  any  body  immersed  in  it, — thus 
if  we  attempt  to  force  a  cork  into  a  vessel  full  of  water, — the 
pressure  will  not  merely  be  felt  by  the  portion  of  the  water 
directly  in .  the  range  of  the  cork,  but  by  all  parts  of  the  mass 
alike  ;  and  the  liability  of  the  bottle  to  break,  supposing  it  to  be 
of  uniform  strength  throughout,  will  be  as  great  in  one  place  as 
another.  And  a  bottle  will  break  at  the  point  wherever  it  is  the 
weakest,  however  that  point  may  be  situated  relatively  to  the  place 
where  the  cork  is  applied  ;  and  the  effect  will  be  the  same  whether 
the  stopper  be  inserted  at  the  top,  bottom,  or  side  of  the  vessel. 
It  is  this  power  which  operates  with  such  astonishing  effect  in  the 
Hydrostatic  Press.  The  annexed  engraving  represents  a  press 
made  of  the  strongest  timbers,  the  foundation  of  which  is  com- 


monly  laid  in  solid  masonry.     A  B  is  a  small  cylinder,  in  which 
moves  the  piston  of  a  forcing  pump,  and  C  D  is  a  large  cylinder, 


352  FOREIGN  MECHANICS. 

in  which  also  moves  a  piston,  having  the  upper  end  of  its  rod 
pressing  against  a  moveable  plank  E,  between  which  and  the 
large  beam  above  is  placed  the  substance  to  be  subjected  to 
pressure,  as,  for  example,  a  pile  of  new-bound  books.  By  the  ac- 
tion of  the  pump  handle,  water  is  raised  into  the  small  cylinder, 
and  on  depressing  the  piston,  it  is  forced  through  a  valve  at  B  into 
the  large  cylinder,  and  raises  the  piston  D,  which  expends  its 
whole  force  on  the  bodies  confined  at  E.  Now,  since  whatever 
force  is  applied  to  any  one  portion  of  the  fluid  extends  alike  to 
every  part,  therefore  the  force  which  is  exerted  by  the  pump  upon 
the  smaller  column,  is  transmitted  unimpaired  to  every  inch  of 
the  larger  column,  and  tends  to  raise  the  moveable  plank,  E,  with 
a  force  as  much  greater,  in  the  aggregate,  than  that  impressed 
upon  the  surface  of  the  smaller,  as  this  surface  is  smaller  than 
that  of  the  larger  column ;  or  (which  is  the  same  thing)  as  the 
number  of  square  inches  in  the  end  of  the  piston  B  is  less  than 
that  of  the  piston  D.  The  power  of  such  a  machine  is  enormously 
great ;  for  supposing  the  hand  to  be  applied  at  the  end  of  the 
handle  with  a  force  of  only  ten  pounds,  and  that  this  handle  or 
lever  is  so  constructed  as  to  multiply  that  force  but  five  times,  the 
force  with  which  the  smaller  piston  will  descend  will  be  equal  to 
fifty  pounds  ;  and  let  us  suppose  that  the  head  of  the  larger  piston 
contains  the  smaller  fifty  times,  then  the  force  exerted  to  raise  the 
press  board  will  equal  two  thousand  five  hundred  pounds.  A  man 
can  indeed  easily  exert  ten  times  the  force  supposed,  and  can 
therefore  exert  a  force  upon  the  substance  under  pressure  equal 
to  twenty-five  thousand  pounds  ! 

Here,  too,  the  mere  application  of  the  puny  force  of  a  child's 
arm  is  sufficient  to  tear  up  trees  by  the  roots,  and  crush  bars  of 
iron  as  though  they  were  pieces  of  wax.  If  as  an  invention  for 
developing  power  it  is  equal  in  importance  to  the  steam  engine, 
but  unlike  it,  its  use  is  not  limited  by  any  circumstances  of  a  local 
nature,  for  it  does  not  depend  on  a  consumption  of  any  extraneous 
substance  whatever ;  two  small  pipes,  each  fitted  with  a  piston 
and  a  little  water,  which  for  years  needs  no  replenishing,  gives  to 
an  ordinary  man  in  all  situations  the  strength  of  a  giant. 

This  machine,  one  of  the  most  admirable  in  the  whole -compass 
of  the  arts,  has  been  called,  by  some  envious  blockheads,  "  Pas- 
caPs  Machine;11  and,  in  their  descriptions,  they  almost  say  Pascal 
invented  it ;  but  that  ingenious  philosopher  has  about  as  much 
claim  to  this  great  honor,  as  the  old  woman  who  first  discovered 
her  beard  and  her  wrinkles  in  her  polished  pewter  platter,  had  to 
be  considered  as  the  inventress  of  the  Newtonian  telescope ! 
Before  Bramah^s  time,  Bonifaces  were  obliged  to  trudge  to  the 


JOSEPH    BRAMAH.  353 

cellar  for  every  drop  of  the  beverage  they  measured  out  to  their 
customers,  or  have  their  barrels  placed  in  waiting  on  the  same 
level  with  their  parlor.  In  most  states  of  the  weather  this  was  a 
hazardous  position,  and  in  some  atmospheres  very  injurious;  but 
Bramah,  by  his  elegant  "Beer  Machine,"  enabled  them  to  pump 
up  into  the  measure,  in  the  bar,  the  fermented  juice  contained  in 
the  various  casks  in  the  cellar. 

Machinery  for  smoothing  surfaces  was  another  of  his  elaborate 
and  beautiful  specimens  of  mechanism.  It  was  erected  at  the 
Woolwich  Arsenal  with  perfect  success  :  the  axis  of  the  principal 
shaft  was  supported  on  a  piston  in  a  vessel  of  oil,  which  diminished 
the  friction  considerably,  and  could  be  accurately  measured  by 
means  of  a  small  forcing  pump.  He  introduced  also  a  mode  of 
turning  spherical  surfaces  either  convex  or  concave,  by  a  tool 
moveable  on  an  axis  perpendicular  to  that  of  the  lathe  ;  and  fixing 
a  curved  tool  in  the  same  position,  he  cut  out  concentric  sheets. 
He.  also  described  machinery  for  making  paper  in  large  sheets  ; 
for  printing  by  means  of  a  roller,  composed  of  a  number  of  circu- 
lar plates,  turning  on  the  same  axis,  each  bearing  twenty-six  let- 
ters capable  of  being  shifted  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  express  any 
single  line  by  a  proper  combination  of  the  plates.  This  was  put 
in  practice  to  number  bank  notes,  and  enable  the  clerks  to  do  six 
where  before  they  could  only  number  one. 

In  1812,  he  produced  his  project  for  main  pipes,  which  in  some 
parts  was  more  ingenious  than  practicable.  In  describing  them, 
he  mentions  having  employed  an  hydrostatic  pressure  equal  to  that 
of  a  column  of  water  twenty  thousand  feet  high,  (about  four  tons 
for  every  inch.)  He  also  asserts  that  he  can  form  five  hundred 
tubes,  each  five  feet  long,  capable  of  sliding  within  each  other, 
and  of  being  extended  in  a  few  seconds,  by  the  pressure  of  air 
forced  into  them,  to  a  length  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet ; 
with  this  power  he  proposed  to  raise  wrecks,  and  regulate  the 
descent  of  weights.  His  improvements  in  wheel  carriages  con- 
sisted in  fixing  each  wheel  to  a  separate  moveable  axis,  having  its 
bearings  at  two  distinct  points  of  its  length,  but  loosely  enclosed 
between  those  points  in  a  cylinder  filled  with  oil ;  in  another,  op- 
posite wheels  were  to  be  fixed  on  the  same  axis,  though  with  the 
power  of  turning  very  stiffly  round  it  to  lessen  the  lateral  motion 
on  rough  roads ;  and  he  suggests  pneumatic  springs,  formed  by 
pistons  sliding  in  cylinders,  as  a  substitute  for  springs  of  metal : 
latterly  he  improved  the  machines  for  sawing  stones  and  timber, 
and  suggested  some  alterations  in  the  construction  of  bridges  and 
canal  locks.  His  last  illness  was  occasioned  by  a  severe  cold, 


354  FOREIGN    MECHANICS. 

taken  during  some  experiments  in  tearing  up  of  trees  in  a  forest. 
He  died  on  the  9th  of  December,  1814. 

Bramah  was  a  sincere  and  unostentatious  follower  of  the  pre- 
cepts of  Christianity  :  his  conversation  was  animated,  and  to  much 
facility  of  expression  he  added  the  most  perfect  independence  of 
opinion :  he  was  a  cheerful,  benevolent,  and  affectionate  man — 
neat  and  methodical  in  his  habits — and  knew  well  how  to  temper 
liberality  with  economy.  Greatly  to  his  honor,  he  often  kept  his 
workmen  employed,  solely  for  their  sake,  when  the  stagnation  of 
trade  prevented  him  disposing  of  the  products  of  their  labor.  As 
a  manufacturer,  he  was  distinguished  for  his  promptitude  and  in- 
tegrity, and  celebrated  for  the  exquisite  finish  which  he  gave  to 
his  productions. 


ANECDOTES,  DESCRIPTIONS, 

ETC.,  ETC., 
RELATING  TO  THE  MECHANIC  ARTS. 


Progress  of  Invention  illustrated. 

THE  progressive  stages  through  which  even  some  of  our  sim- 
plest tools  have  to  pass,  ere  they  arrive  at  their  final  state  of  per- 
fection, is  sometimes  astonishing.  The  simple  process  of  drawing 
a  cork  will  furnish  the  necessary  illustrations. 

The  inventor  of  bottles  is  unknown ;  but  these 
were  in  use  centuries  before  corks  were  thought 
of,  and  these,  again,  were  employed  for  generations 
before  a  convenient  method  was  hit  upon  for  their 
extraction.  The  exhilarating  contents  could  then 
only  be  tasted  by  what  was  technically  called  "  be- 
heading  the  bottle."  More  expert  practitioners 
had  many  opportunities  of  showing  their  skill  in 
removing  the  impediment  by  a  dexterous  twist 
of  the  fingers ;  or,  if  that  were  impracticable, 
teeth  were  called  in  as  their  natural  auxiliaries : 
here,  however,  in  many  cases,  it  was  doubtful 
whether  the  cork  would  follow  the  teeth,  or  the 
teeth  remain  in  the  cork;  and  if  an  obstinate 
remnant  would  remain,  a  nail  was  a  ready  means 
of  dislodging  the  stubborn  plug,  particle  by  par- 
ticle. When  at  any  time,  through  an  impatience 
of  the  nibbling  labor,  or  a  despair  of  accom- 
plishing a  clean  extraction  at  all,  it  was  resolved 
to  send  the  obstacle  the  wrong  way;  this  was 
then,  indeed,  an  invaluable  instrument.  A  pair 

25 


T 

— 


356  ANECDOTES, 

of  skewers,  or  forks,  inserted  "  witchwise,"' 
would  sometimes  accomplish  those  difficult  cases 
which  had  baffled  the  exertions  of  all  the  natur- 
als. Twisting  the  lower  extremity  of  the  "  bare 
bodkin"  into  a  spiral  form,  and  adding  a  handle 
to  it,  was  the  thought  of  a  master  genius ;  and  in 
this  shape  mankind  for  ages  were  contented  to 
avail  themselves  of  its  services ;  and  even  at 
the  present  hour,  some  barbarous,  uncouth  coun- 
tries and  districts  may  be  named  where  it  is  still 
the  extractor  in  most  general  use.  In  our  coun- 
try, it  must  be  in  the  recollection  of  many,  that 
this  was  in  numerous  cases  a  very  inefficient 
machine ;  and  no  one  hostess  ever  before  con- 
ferred such  a  favor  upon  all  bottle  suckers  as 
that  lady  who  first  conceived  the  idea  of  placing 
a  button  at  the  end  of  the  screw-worm.  Hence- 
forth the  decanting  process  was  a  mere  matter 
of  routine.  When,  in  her  green  old  age,  death 
laid  his  hand  on  the  inventress,  a  piratical  screw- 
maker  also  took  to  himself  the  credit  and  profit 
of  the  button.  Yet  the  fair  originator  shall  be 
ne'er  forgotten,  even  although  her  master-piece, 
some  years  later,  was  eclipsed,  and  may 
yet  be  superseded  by  the  King's  screw, 
which  can  receive  no  addition  to  its  beauty 
or  convenience. 

Another  illustration  can  be  found  in  the 
shoemaker's  awl,  which  is  a  much  simpler 
instrument,  even  than  the  cork-screw.  The 
first  awls  were  plain,  conical  pundits,  that 
made  a  round  hole  in  the  leather.  It  was 
soon  discovered  that  this  form  was  erro- 
neous, for  the  hole  thus  made  was  never 
more  than  half  filled  with  the  two  waxed  threads  crossing  each 
other.  Geometry  teaches  us  that  these  two  threads,  being  like 
two  small  circles  enclosed  by  a  third,  occupied  but  one  half  of  the 
space  of  the  hole. 

The  conical  awl  was  then  flattened,  and  had  an  oval  form  as  to 
its  section  given  to  it ;  and  some  time  afterwards  the  awl  was  so 
filed  as  to  give  it  four  faces,  the  section  being  something  in  the 
shape  of  a  lozenge  ;  but  still  the  awl  was  straight.  Although  this 
straightness  is  useful  in  many  cases,  yet  it  was  improper  in  the 
business  of  shoemaking.  Suppose  it  were  wished  to  sew  together, 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  357 

quite  close  to  the  edge,  two  pieces  of  leather,  one  placed  upon  the 
other,  and  that  a  straight  awl  is  used  ;  the  hole  that  it  will  make 
will  constantly  push  out  the  leather  towards  the  edge  and  give  it  a 
convex  form,  and  when  the  sewing  is  done  the  edge  will  exhibit  a 
row  of  festoons,  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  rub  down  by  means 
of  a  knife,  in  order  to  give  a  regular  edge  to  the  pieces,  but  which, 
6y  this  means,  will  lose  much  of  its  strength.  Now,  if,  on  the 
contrary,  a  crooked  awl  is  used,  and  pushed  in  properly,  it  may 
be  brought  very  near  the  edge,  by  making  it  describe  the  arc  of  a 
circle,  whose  convexity  is  opposite  to  the  edge.  By  this  simple 
means  the  festooned  appearance  of  the  edge  produced  by  the 
straight  awl  will  not  be  formed,  and  of  course  the  strength  of  the 
leather  will  be  preserved  undiminished,  and  the  sewing  itself  will 
be  strong.  Unfortunately,  the  name  of  the  person  who  conceived 
the  idea  of  bending  the  awl  is  lost. 


Illustration  of  the  Ignorance  of  Foreigners  respecting  American 
Inventions. 

The  ignorance  of  foreigners  in  relation  to  our  country  and  its 
improvements  in  the  mechanic  arts,  is  well  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing conversation  related  by  Allen,  in  his  Travels,  as  having 
passed  between  himself  and  a  Flemish  gentleman,  in  a  stage 
coach  in  Holland.  In  speaking  of  steam,  he  says  : 

"  Our  artisan  was  also  eloquent  in  his  eulogium  upon  steam 
navigation,  having  for  the  first  time  in  his  life  made  the  passage 
from  Rotterdam  to  Antwerp  in  the  steam-packet.  In  a  few  years, 
he  observed,  steamboats  would  be  in  use  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  even  in  the  United  States  of  America  we  might  not  be  long 
without  them.  His  surprise  was  great,  when  informed  that  steam, 
boats  were  in  general  use  on  most  of  the  large  rivers  of  the  Union, 
where  they  were  first  successfully  put  into  operation,  some  twenty 
years  ago. 

"  The  subject  of  mechanical  inventions  having  been  thus  intro- 
duced, I  described  to  him  several  of  the  curiously  constructed 
machines  invented  by  Americans.  He  continued  to  listen  to  an 
account  of  the  nail  machine,  which  cuts  and  heads  nails  from  a 
flat  bar  of  iron  as  fast  as  a  man  can  count  them.  The  machine  for 
making  weavers1  reeds  or  slaies  seemed  to  strike  attention  as  a  won- 
derful invention,  whereby  the  mechanism  is  made  to  draw  in  the 
flattened  wire  from  a  reel,  to  insert  it  between  the  side  pieces,  to  cut 
it  off  at  the  proper  length,  and  finally,  to  bind  each  dent  firmly  in 
its  place  with  tarred  twine,  accomplishing  the  whole  operation 


358  ANECDOTES, 

without  the  assistance  of  an  attendant,  in  a  more  perfect  manner 
than  can  be  performed  by  the  most  skilful  hand.  He  had  never 
before  heard  of  these  machines :  although  possessed  of  a  good  share 
of  intelligence,  yet  the  complicated  operations  of  the  mechanism 
for  accomplishing  processes  which  he  supposed  could  only  be 
brought  about  by  manual  dexterity,  appeared  to  him  almost  in- 
credible. But  when  I  described  to  him  Blanchar<Ts  Lathe,  in 
which  gun-stocks  and  shoe-lasts,  with  all  their  irregularity  of  out- 
line,  are  turned  exactly  to  a  pattern,  his  confidence  in  my  veracity 
seemed  evidently  wavering,  and  on  giving  him  a  description  of 
Whittemore's  celebrated  .card  machine,  which  draws  off  the  wire 
from  the  reel, — cuts  it  into  pieces  of  the  proper  length  for  teeth, — 
bends  it  into  the  form  of  a  staple, — punctures  the  holes  in  the 
leather  with  a  needle, — inserts  the  staples  into  these  punctured 
holes  in  the  leather, — and  finally,  crooks  the  teeth  into  the  required 
form,  completing  of  itself  all  those  operations  with  regularity  with- 
out the  assistance  of  a  human  hand  to  direct  it,  the  credulity  of  my 
travelling  companion  would  extend  no  farther.  He  manifested 
doubts  of  all  that  I  had  been  describing  to  him,  accompanied  by 
feelings  of  irritation  at  what  he  appeared  to  consider  an  attempt  to 
impose  upon  him  marvellous  travellers1  stories. 

"  Giving  vent  to  an  emphatic  humph  ! — he  petulantly  threw  him- 
self back  into  the  corner  of  the  diligence,  and  would  hold  no  far- 
ther conversation  during  the  remainder  of  our  ride,  on  the  subject 
of  mechanical  improvements  made  in  Flemish  manufactures." 


Singular  Origin  of  the  Invention  of  Frame-work  Knitting. 

The  stocking  frame,  to  any  one  who  attentively  considers  its 
complex  operations,  and  the  elegant  sleight  with  which  it  forms  its 
successive  rows  of  loops  or  stitches,  will  appear  to  be  the  most  ex- 
traordinary single  feat,  the  most  remarkable  stride,  ever  made  in 
mechanical  invention. 

In  the  Stocking  Weavers1  Hall,  in  Red  Cross  street  London, 
there  is  a  portrait  of  a  man,  painted  in  the  act  of  pointing  to  an  iron 
stocking  frame,  and  addressing  a  woman,  who  is  knitting  with 
needles  by  hand.  The  picture  bears  the  following  quaint  inscrip- 
tion : — "  In  the  year  1589,  the  ingenious  William  Lee,  A.  M.,  of 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  devised  this  profitable  art  for  stock- 
ings, (but  being  despised  went  to  France,)  yet  of  iron  to  himself, 
but  to  us,  and  to  others,  of  gold  ;  in  memory  of  whom  this  is  here 
painted." 

This  machine  was  constructed  somewhere  about  the  year  1600. 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  359 

It  was  only  about  thirty  years  prior  to  its  construction,  that  the  art 
of  knitting  stockings,  by  wires  worked  by  the  fingers,  had  been 
introduced  into  England  from  Spain. 

Tin's  Mr.  Lee,  it  is  said,  paid  his  addresses  to  a  young  woman 
in  his  neighborhood,  to  whom,  from  some  cause,  his  attentions  were 
not  agreeable  ;  or,  as  with  more  probability  it  has  been  conjectured, 
she  affected  to  treat  him  with  negligence  to  ascertain  her  power 
over  his  affections.  Whenever  he  paid  his  visits  she  always  took 
care  to  be  busily  employed  in  knitting,  and  would  pay  no  attention 
to  his  addresses ;  this  conduct  she  pursued  for  so  long  a  period, 
that  the  lover  became  disgusted,  and  he  vowed  to  devote  his  leisure, 
instead  of  dancing  attendance  on  a  capricious  woman,  who  treated 
his  attention  with  cold  neglect,  in  devising  an  invention  that  would 
effectually  supersede  her  favorite  employment  of  knitting.  So  se- 
dulous was  Mr.  Lee  in  his  new  occupation,  that  he  neglected  every- 
thing to  accomplish  this  new  object  of  his  attentions ;  even  his 
sacerdotal  duties  were  neglected.  In  vain  did  his  sweetheart  en- 
deavor to  reclaim  him ;  she  found  too  late  that  she  had  carried  her 
humor  to  far.  All  interests,  all  avocations,  all  affections  were 
absorbed  in  his  new  pursuit,  from  which  he  imagined  he  should 
realize  an  immense  fortune.  His  curacy  was  abandoned  as  be- 
neath the  notice  of  a  person  who  had  formed  in  his  imagination 
such  gigantic  prospects. 

The  old  stocking  makers  were  fond  of  dilating  in  their  cups 
and  in  their  conversation  on  the  difficulties  he  encountered.  He 
watched  his  mistress  with  the  greatest  attention  while  knitting,  and 
he  observed  that  she  made  the  web  loop  by  loop,  but  the  round 
shape  which  she  gave  to  the  stocking  from  the  four  needles,  greatly 
embarrassed  him  in  his  notions  of  destroying  her  trade.  Pondering 
in  his  mind  the  difficulties  of  his  task,  on  one  of  his  visits  he  found 
her  knitting  the  heel  of  a  stocking,  and  using  only  two  needles ;  one 
was  employed  in  holding  the  loops,  while  another  was  engaged  in 
forming  a  new  series.  The  thought  struck  him  instantly  that  he 
could  make  a  flat  web,  and  then  by  joining  the  selvages  with  the 
needle,  make  it  round.  At  the  end  of  three  years1  excessive  study 
and  toil,  Mr.  Lee  was  enabled  to  make  a  course  upon  a  frame  ;  but 
here  new  difficulties  presented  themselves  ;  he  wrought  with  great 
facility  the  top,  the  narrowings,  and  the  small  of  the  leg,  but  the 
formation  of  the  heel  and  foot  embarrassed  the  ingenious  mechanic, 
who  had  surmounted  such  seeming  insuperable  difficulties.  After 
having  to  unreave  a  great  number  of  abortive  attempts,  persever- 
ance at  length  crowned  his  efforts,  the  clergyman  attained  the 
height  of  his  wishes,  and  became  the  fast  frame-work  knitter. 

He  brought  the  machine  to  such  perfection  that  even  to  the  pre- 
25* 


360  ANECDOTES, 

sent  time  it  has  received  no  essential  improvements.  Having 
taught  its  use  to  his  brother  and  the  rest  of  his  relations,  he  estab- 
lished his  frame  at  Culverton,  near  Nottingham,  as  a  formidable 
competitor  of  female  handiwork,  teaching  his  mistress,  by  the  in- 
significance to  which  he  reduced  the  implements  of  her  pride,  that 
the  love  of  a  man  of  genius  was  not  to  be  slighted  with  impunity. 

After  practising  this  business  for  five  years,  he  became  aware 
of  its  importance  in  a  national  point  of  view,  and  brought  his  inven- 
tion to  London,  to  seek  protection  and  encouragement  from  the 
court,  by  whom  his  fabrics  were  much  admired.  The  period  of 
his  visit  was  not  propitious.  Elizabeth,  the  patroness  of  whatever 
ministered  to  her  vanity  as  a  woman,  and  her  state  as  a  princess, 
was  in  the  last  stage  of  her  decline.  Her  successor  was  too  deeply 
engrossed  with  political  intrigues  for  securing  the  stability  of  his 
throne,  to  be  able  to  afford  any  leisure  to  cherish  an  infant  manu- 
facture. Nay,  though  Lee  and  his  brother  made  a  pair  of  stock- 
ings in  the  presence  of  the  king,  it  is  said  he  viewed  their  frame 
rather  as  a  dangerous  innovation,  likely  to  deprive  the  poor  of  labor 
and  bread,  rather  than  as  a  means  of  multiplying  the  resources  of 
national  industry  and  giving  employment  to  many  thousand  people. 

The  encouragement  which  the  narrow-minded  James  refused 
was  offered  by  the  French  king  Henry  IV.,  and  his  sagacious  min- 
ister Sully.  They  invited  Lee  to  come  to  France  with  his  admi- 
rable machines.  Thither  he  accordingly  repaired,  and  settled  at 
Rouen,  and  gave  an  impulse  to  manufactures,  which  is  even  felt 
to  the  present  day  in  that  department.  After  Henry  had  fallen  a 
victim  to  domestic  treachery,  Lee,  envied  by  the  natives  whose 
genius  he  had  eclipsed,  was  proscribed  as  a  protestant,  and  obliged 
to  seek  concealment  from  the  bloody  bigots  in  Paris,  where  he 
ended  his  days  in  secret  grief  and  disappointment.  Some  of  his 
workmen  made  their  escape  into  England,  where,  under  his  in- 
genious apprentice  Aston,  they  mounted  the  stocking  frame,  and 
thus  restored  to  its  native  country  an  invention  which  had  well 
nigh  been  lost  to  it. 

Ancient  and  Modern  Labor. 

The  great  Pyramid  of  Egypt  cost  the  labor  of  one  hundred  thousand 
men  for  twenty  years,  exclusive  of  those  who  prepared  and  collected 
the  materials.  The  steam  engines  of  England,  alone,  worked  by 
thirty-six  thousand  men,  would  raise  the  same  quantity  of  materials 
to  the  same  height  in  eighteen  hours,  which  reckoning  ten  hours 
to  the  day,  and  three  hundred  working  days  to  the  year,  would 
enable  the  moderns  to  erect  over  3,000  pyramids  in  the  same  time. 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  361 

The  Slide  of  Alpnach. 

Amongst  the  forests  which  flank  many  of  the  lofty  mountains 
of  Switzerland,  some  of  the  finest  timber  is  found  in  positions  al- 
most inaccessible.  The  expense  of  roads,  even  if  it  were  possible 
to  make  them  in  such  situations,  would  prevent  the  inhabitants 
from  deriving  any  advantages  from  these  almost  inexhaustible  sup. 
plies.  Placed  by  nature  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  spot 
on  which  they  are  required,  they  are  precisely  in  fit  circumstances 
for  the  application  of  machinery ;  and  the  inhabitants  constantly 
avail  themselves  of  it,  to  enable  the  force  of  gravity  to  relieve  them 
from  some  portion  of  their  labor.  The  inclined  planes  which  they 
have  established  in  various  forests,  by  which  the  timber  has  been 
sent  down  to  the  water-courses,  must  have  excited  the  admiration 
of  every  traveller ;  and  these  slides,  in  addition  to  the  merit  of 
simplicity,  have  that  of  economy,  as  their  construction  requires 
scarcely  any  thing  beyond  the  material  which  grows  upon  the  spot. 
Of  all  these  specimens  of  carpentry,  the  Slide  of  Alpnach  was  by 
far  the  most  considerable,  both  from  its  great  length,  and  from  the 
almost  inaccessible  position  from  which  it  descended.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  description  of  that  work  given  in  Gilbert's  An- 
nalen,  1819,  and  translated  in  the  second  volume  of  Brewster's 
Journal : — 

For  many  centuries,  the  rugged  flanks  and  the  deep  gorges  of 
Mount  Pilatus  were  covered  with  impenetrable  forests.  Lofty  pre- 
cipices encircled  them  on  all  sides.  Even  the  daring  hunters  were 
scarcely  able  to  reach  them ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  had 
never  conceived  the  idea  of  disturbing  them  with  the  axe.  These 
immense  forests  were  therefore  permitted  to  grow  and  to  perish, 
without  being  of  the  least  utility  to  man,  till  a  foreigner,  conduct- 
ed into  their  wild  recesses  in  the  pursuit  of  the  chamois,  was  struck 
with  wonder  at  the  sight,  and  directed  the  attention  of  several  Swiss 
gentlemen  to  the  extent  and  superiority  of  the  timber.  The  most 
intelligent  and  skilful  individuals,  however,  considered  it  quite  im- 
practicable to  avail  themselves  of  such  inaccessible  stores.  It  was 
not  till  November,  1816,  that  M.  Rupp,  and  three  Swiss  gentlemen, 
entertaining  more  sanguine  hopes,  drew  up  a  plan  of  a  slide,  found- 
ed on  trigonometrical  measurements.  Having  purchased  a  certain 
extent  of  the  forests  from  the  commune  of  Alpnach  for  six  thou- 
sand crowns,  they  began  the  construction  of  the  slide,  and  comple- 
ted it  in  the  spring  of  1818. 

The  Slide  of  Alpnach  is  formed  entirely  of  about  25,000  large 
pine  trees,  deprived  of  their  bark,  and  united  together  in  a  very 
ingenious  manner,  without  the  aid  of  iron.  It  occupied  about  one 


262  ANECDOTES, 

hundred  and  sixty  workmen  during  eighteen  months,  and  cost  nearly 
one  hundred  thousand  francs,  or  £4250.  It  is  about  three  leagues, 
or  forty-four  thousand  English  feet  long,  and  terminates  in  the 
Lake  of  Lucerne.  It  has  the  form  of  a  trough,  about  six  feet 
broad,  and  from  three  to  six  feet  deep.  Its  bottom  is  formed  of 
three  trees,  the  middle  one  of  which  has  a  groove  cut  out  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  for  receiving  small  rills  of  water,  which  are 
conducted  into  it  from  various  places,  for  the  purpose  of  diminish, 
ing  the  friction.  The  whole  of  the  slide  is  sustained  by  about  two 
thousand  supports ;  and  in  many  places  it  is  attached,  in  a  very 
ingenious  manner,  to  the  rugged  precipices  of  granite. 

The  direction  of  the  slide  is  sometimes  straight,  and  sometimes 
zig-zag,  with  an  inclination  of  from  10°  to  18°.  It  is  often  car- 
ried along  the  sides  of  hills,  and  the  flanks  of  precipitous  rocks, 
and  sometimes  passes  over  their  summits.  Occasionally  it  goes 
under  ground,  and  at  other  times  it  is  conducted  over  the  deep  gor- 
ges by  scaffoldings  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  height. 

The  boldness  which  characterizes  this  work,  the  sagacity  dis- 
played in  all  its  arrangements,  and  the  skill  of  the  engineer,  have 
excited  the  wonder  of  all  who  have  seen  it.  Before  any  step  could 
be  taken  in  its  erection,  it  was  necessary  to  cut  several  thousand 
trees,  to  obtain  a  passage  through  the  impenetrable  thickets ;  and, 
as  the  workmen  advanced,  men  were  posted  at  certain  distances, 
in  order  to  point  out  the  road  for  their  return,  and  to  discover,  in 
the  gorges,  the  places  where  the  piles  of  wood  had  been  estab- 
lished. M.  Rupp  was  himself  obliged,  more  than  once,  to  be  sus- 
pended by  cords,  in  order  to  descend  precipices  many  hundred  feet 
high  ;  and,  in  the  first  months  of  the  undertaking,  he  was  attacked 
with  a  violent  fever,  which  deprived  him  of  the  power  of  superin- 
tending his  workmen.  Nothing,  however,  could  diminish  his  in- 
vincible perseverance.  He  was  carried  every  day  to  the  mountain 
in  a  barrow,  to  direct  the  labors  of  the  workmen,  which  was  abso- 
lutely necessary,  as  he  had  scarcely  two  good  carpenters  among 
them  all ;  the  rest  having  been  hired  by  accident,  without  any  of 
the  knowledge  which  such  an  undertaking  required.  M.  Rupp  had 
also  to  contend  against  the  prejudices  of  the  peasantry.  He  was 
supposed  to  have  communion  with  the  devil.  He  was  charged  with 
heresy,  and  every  obstacle  was  thrown  in  the  way  of  an  enterprise 
which  they  regarded  as  absurd  and  impracticable. 

All  these  difficulties,  however,  were  surmounted,  and  he  had  at 
last  the  satisfaction  of  observing  the  trees  descend  from  the  moun- 
tain with  the  rapidity  of  lightning.  The  larger  pines,  which  were 
about  a  hundred  feet  long,  and  ten  inches  thick  at  their  smaller  ex- 
tremity, ran  through  the  space  of  three  leagues,  or  nearly  nine  miles, 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  363 

in  two  minutes  and  a  half,  and  during  their  descent,  they  appeared 
to  be  only  a  few  feet  in  length.  The  arrangements  for  this  part 
of  the  operation  were  extremely  simple.  From  the  lower  end  of 
the  slide  to  the  upper  end,  where  the  trees  were  introduced,  work, 
men  were  posted  at  regular  distances,  and  as  soon  as  every  thing 
was  ready,  the  workman  at  the  lower  end  of  the  slide  cried  out  to 
the  one  above  him, '  Lachez,"1  (let  go.)  The  cry  was  repeated  from 
one  to  another,  and  reached  the  top  of  the  slide  in  three  minutes. 
The  workman  at  the  top  of  the  slide  then  cried  out  to  the  one  be- 
low him,  '11  vient^  (it  comes,)  and  the  tree  was  instantly  launched 
down  the  slide,  preceded  by  the  cry  which  was  repeated  from  post 
to  post.  As  soon  as  the  tree  had  reached  the  bottom,  and  plunged 
into  the  lake,  the  cry  of  Lachez  was  repeated  as  before,  and  a  new 
tree  was  launched  in  a  similar  manner.  By  these  means  a  tree 
descended  every  five  or  six  minutes,  provided  no  accident  happened 
to  the  slide,  which  sometimes  took  place,  but  which  was  instantly 
repaired  when  it  did. 

In  order  to  show  the  enormous  force  which  the  trees  acquired 
from  the  great  velocity  of  their  descent,  M.  Rupp  made  arrange- 
ments for  causing  some  of  the  trees  to  spring  from  the  slide.  They 
penetrated  by  their  thickest  extremities  no  less  than  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  feet  into  the  earth ;  and  one  of  the  trees  having  by 
accident  struck  against  the  other,  it  instantly  cleft  it  through  its 
whole  length,  as  if  it  had  been  struck  by  lightning. 

After  the  trees  had  descended  the  slide,  they  were  collected  into 
rafts  upon  the  lake,  and  conducted  to  Lucerne.  From  thence  they 
descended  the  Reuss,  then  the  Aar  to  near  Brugg,  afterwards  to 
Waldshut  by  the  Rhine,  then  to  Basle,  and  even  to  the  sea  when  it 
was  necessary. 

In  order  that  none  of  the  small  wood  might  be  lost,  M.  Rupp 
established  in  the  forest  large  manufactories  of  charcoal.  He 
erected  magazines  for  preserving  it  when  manufactured,  and  had 
made  arrangements  for  the  construction  of  barrels,  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  it  to  the  market.  In  winter,  when  the  slide  was  cov- 
ered with  snow,  the  barrels  were  made  to  descend  on  a  kind  of 
sledge.  The  wood  which  was  not  fit  for  being  carbonized,  was 
heaped  up  and  burnt,  and  the  ashes  packed  up  and  carried  away, 
during  the  winter. 

A  few  days  before  the  author  of  the  preceding  account  visited 
the  slide,  an  inspector  of  the  navy  had  come  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
amining the  quality  of  the  timber.  He  declared  that  he  had  never 
seen  any  timber  that  was  so  strong,  so  fine,  and  of  such  a  size ; 
and  he  concluded  an  advantageous  bargain  for  one  thousand  trees. 

Such  is  a  brief  account  of  a  work  undertaken  and  executed  by 


364  ANECDOTES, 

a  single  individual,  and  which  has  excited  a  very  high  degree  of 
interest  in  every  part  of  Europe.  We  regret  to  add,  that  this  mag. 
nificent  structure  no  longer  exists,  and  that  scarcely  a  trace  of  it  is  to 
be  seen  upon  the  flanks  of  Mount  Pilatus.  Political  circumstances 
having  taken  away  the  principal  source  of  the  demand  for  timber, 
and  no  other  market  having  been  found,  the  operation  of  cutting 
and  transporting  the  trees  necessarily  ceased. 

Professor  Playfair,  who  visited  this  singular  slide,  states,  that 
six  minutes  was  the  usual  time  occupied  in  the  descent  of  a  tree, 
but  that  in  wet  weather  it  reached  the  lake  in  three  minutes. 


American  Road-making. 

"  Road-making*  is  a  branch  of  engineering  which  has  been 
very  little  cultivated  in  America ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  intro- 
duction of  railways  that  the  Americans  entertained  the  idea  of 
transporting  heavy  goods  by  any  other  means  than  those  afforded 
by  canals  and  slackwater  navigation.  Their  objection  to  paved 
or  Macadamized  roads  such  as  are  used  in  Europe,  is  founded  on 
the  prejudicial  effects  exerted  upon  works  of  that  description  by 
the  severe  and  protracted  winters  by  which  the  country  is  visited, 
and  also  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  obtaining  materials  suitable 
for  their  construction,  and  for  keeping  them  in  a  state  of  proper 
repair.  Stone  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  road-making  is  by  no 
means  plentiful  in  America ;  and  as  the  number  of  workmen  is 
small  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  work  which  is  generally 
going  forward  in  the  country,  manual  labor  is  very  expensive. 
Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  evident  that  roads  would  have 
been  a  very  costly  means  of  communication,  and  as  they  are  not 
suitable  for  the  transport  of  heavy  goods,  the  Americans,  in  com- 
mencing  their  internal  improvements,  directed  their  whole  atten- 
tion to  the  construction  of  canals,  as  being  much  better  adapted  to 
supply  their  wants. 

"  The  roads  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada  are,  from 
these  causes,  not  very  numerous,  arid  most  of  those  by  which  I 
travelled  were  in  so  neglected  and  wretched  a  condition  as  hardly 
to  deserve  the  name  of  highways,  being  quite  unfit  for  any  vehicle 
but  an  American  stage,  and  any  pilot  but  an  American  driver.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country,  the  operation  of  cutting  a  track  through 
the  forests  of  a  sufficient  width  to  allow  vehicles  to  pass  each  other, 
is  all  that  has  been  done  towards  the  formation  of  a  road.  The 

*  Stevenson's  Engineering  in  North  America. 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  365 

roots  of  the  felled  trees  are  often  not  removed ;  and  in  marshes, 
where  the  ground  is  wet  and  soft,  the  trees  themselves  are  cut  in 
lengths  of  about  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  laid  close  to  each  other 
across  the  road,  to  prevent  vehicles  from  sinking,  forming  what  is 
called  in  America  a  '  Corduroy  road,"1  over  which  the  coach  ad- 
vances  by  a  series  of  leaps  and  starts,  particularly  trying  to  those 
accustomed  to  the  comforts  of  European  travelling. 

"  On  the  road  leading  from  Pittsburg  on  the  Ohio  to  the  town 
of  Erie  on  the  lake  of  that  name,  I  saw  all  the  varieties  of  forest 
road-making  in  great  perfection.  Sometimes  our  way  lay  for 
miles  through  extensive  marshes,  which  we  crossed  by  corduroy 
roads  ;  at  others  the  coach  stuck  fast  in  mud,  from  which  it  could 
be  extricated  only  by  the  combined  efforts  of  the  coachman  and 
passengers  ;  and  at  one  place  we  travelled  for  upwards  of  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  through  a  forest  flooded  with  water,  which  stood  to 
the  height  of  several  feet  on  many  of  the  trees,  and  occasionally 
covered  the  naves  of  the  coach-wheels.  The  distance  of  the  route 
from  Pittsburg  to  Erie  is  128  miles,  which  was  accomplished  in 
forty-six  hours,  being  at  the  very  slow  rate  of  about  two  miles  and 
three  quarters  an  hour,  although  the  conveyance  by  which  I  trav- 
elled carried  the  mail,  and  stopped  only  for  breakfast,  dinner,  and 
tea,  but  there  was  considerable  delay  caused  by  the  coach  being 
once  upset  and  several  times  '  mired.1 

"  The  best  roads  in  the  United  States  are  those  of  New  Eng- 
land, where,  in  the  year  1796,  the  first  American  turnpike  act  was 
granted.  These  roads  are  made  of  gravel ;  a  material  which,  by 
the  way,  is  much  used  for  road-making  in  Ireland.  The  surface 
of  the  New  England  roads  is  very  smooth ;  but  as  no  attention 
has  been  paid  to  forming  or  draining  them,  it  is  only  for  a  few 
months  during  summer  that  they  possess  any  superiority,  or  are, 
in  fact,  at  all  tolerable.  In  Virginia  and  all  the  states  lying  to  the 
south,  as  well  as  throughout  the  whole  country  to  the  westward  of 
the  Alleghany  mountains,  the  roads,  I  believe,  are,  generally  speak- 
ing, of  the  same  description  as  the  one  already  mentioned  between 
Pittsburg  and  Erie,  affording  very  little  comfort  or  facility  to  those 
who  have  the  misfortune  to  be  obliged  to  travel  upon  them. 

"  But  on  the  construction  of  one  or  two  lines  of  road,  the  Ameri- 
cans have  bestowed  a  little  more  attention.  The  most  remarkable 
of  them  is  that  called  the  '  National  Road,1  stretching  across  the 
country  from  Baltimore  to  the  state  of  Illinois,  a  distance  of  no  less 
than  seven  hundred  miles,  an  arduous  and  extensive  work,  which 
was  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  The  narrow  tract  of  land  from  which  it  was  necessary 
to  remove  the  timber  and  brushwood  for  the  passage  of  the  road, 


366  ANECDOTES, 

measures  eighty  feet  in  breadth ;  but  the  breadth  of  the  road  itself 
is  only  thirty  feet.  The  line  of  the  '  National  Road '  commences 
at  Baltimore,  passes  through  part  of  the  state  of  Maryland,  and 
entering  that  of  Pennsylvania,  crosses  the  range  of  the  Alleghany 
mountains,  after  which  it  passes  through  the  states  of  Virginia, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana,  to  Illinois.  It  is  in  contemplation  to  produce 
this  line  of  road  to  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  where,  the  river 
being  crossed  by  a  ferry-boat  stationed  at  that  place,  the  road  is 
ultimately  to  be  extended  into  the  state  of  Missouri,  which  lies  to 
the  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

"  The  '  Macadamized  road,1  as  it  is  called,  leading  from  Albany 
to  Troy,  is  another  line  which  has  been  formed  at  some  cost,  and 
with  some  degree  of  care.  This  road,  as  its  name  implies,  is 
constructed  with  stone  broken,  according  to  Macadam^  principle. 
It  is  six  miles  in  length,  and  has  been  formed  of  a  sufficient 
breadth  to  allow  three  carriages  to  stand  abreast  on  it  at  once.  It 
belongs  to  an  incorporated  company,  who  are  said  to  have  ex- 
pended about  £20,000  in  constructing  and  upholding  it. 

"  Some  interesting  experiments  have  lately  been  set  on  foot  at 
New  York,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  permanent  and  durable 
city  road,  for  streets  over  which  there  is  a  great  thoroughfare. 
The  place  chosen  for  the  trial  was  the  Broadway,  in  which  the 
traffic  is  constant  and  extensive. 

"  The  specimen  of  road-making  first  put  to  the  test  was  a  spe- 
cies of  causewaying  or  pitching ;  but  the  materials  employed  are 
round  water- worn  stones,  of  small  size ;  and  their  only  recom- 
mendation for  such  a  work  appears  to  be  their  great  abundance  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  town.  The  most  of  the  streets  in  New 
York,  and  indeed  in  all  the  American  towns,  are  paved  with  stones 
of  this  description ;  but,  owing  to  their  small  size  and  round  form, 
they  easily  yield  to  the  pressure  of  carriages  passing  over  them, 
and  produce  the  large  ruts  and  holes  for  which  American  thorough- 
fares are  famed.  To  form  a  smooth  and  durable  pavement,  the 
pitching-stones  should  have  a  considerable  depth,  and  their  oppo- 
site sides  ought  to  be  as  nearly  parallel  as  possible,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  stones  should  have  very  little  taper.  The  footpaths  in 
most  of  the  towns  are  paved  with  bricks  set  on  edge,  and  bedded 
in  sand,  similar  to  the  '  clinkers,'  or  small  hard-burned  bricks  so 
generally  used  for  road-making  in  Holland. 

"  The  second  specimen  was  formed  with  broken  stones,  but  the 
materials,  owing  chiefly,  no  doubt,  to  the  high  rate  of  wages,  are 
not  broken  sufficiently  small  to  entitle  it  to  the  name  of  a  '  Mac- 
adamized road.1  It  is,  however,  a  wonderful  improvement  on  the 
ordinary  pitched  pavement  of  the  country,  and  the  only  objections 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  367 

to  its  general  introduction  are  the  prejudicial  effects  produced  on 
it  by  the  very  intense  frost  with  which  the  country  is  visited,  and 
the  expense  of  keeping  it  in  repair. 

"  The  third  specimen  is  rather  of 
an  original  description.  It  consists 
of  a  species  of  tesselated  pavement, 
formed  of  hexagonal  billets  of  pine 
wood  measuring  six  inches  on  each 
side,  and  twelve  inches  in  depth, 
arranged  as  shown  in  the  annexed 
cut,  in  which  the  larger  diagram  is  a  view  of  part  of  the  surface 
of  the  pavement,  and  the  smaller,  one  of  the  billets  of  wood  of 
which  it  is  composed,  shown  on  a  larger  scale.  From  the  manner 
in  which  the  timber  is  arranged,  the  pressure  falls  on  it  parallel  to 
the  direction  in  which  its  fibres  lie,  so  that  the  tendency  to  wear  is 
very  small.  The  blocks  are  coated  with  pitch  or  tar,  and  are  set 
in  sand,  forming  a  smooth  surface  for  carriages,  which  pass  easily 
and  noiselessly  over  it.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  suitableness 
of  wood  for  forming  a  roadway  ;  and  such  an  improvement  is  cer- 
tainly much  wanted  in  all  American  towns,  and  in  none  of  them 
more  than  in  New  York.  Some,  however,  have  expressed  a  fear 
that  great  difficulty  would  be  experienced  in  keeping  pavements 
constructed  in  this  manner  in  a  clean  state,  and  that  during  damp 
weather  a  vapor  might  arise  from  the  timber,  which,  if  it  were 
brought  into  general  use,  would  prove  hurtful  to  the  salubrity  of 
large  towns. 

"  In  the  northern  parts  of  Germany  and  also  in  Russia,  wooden 
pavements  are  a  good  deal  used.  My  friend  Dr.  D.  B.  Reid  in- 
forms me,  that  at  St.  Petersburg  a  wooden  causeway  has  been  tried 
with  considerable  success.  The  billets  of  wood  are  hexagonal,  and 
are  arranged  in  the  manner  represented  in  the  diagram  of  the 
American  pavement.  At  first  they  were  simply  imbedded  in  the 
ground,  but  a  great  improvement  has  been  introduced  by  placing 
them  on  a  flooring  of  planks  laid  horizontally,  so  as  to  prevent 
them  from  sinking  unequally.  This  has  not,  so  far  as  I  know, 
been  done  in  America.11 


Archimedes. 

This  celebrated  philosopher  of  antiquity  was  a  native  of  Syra- 
cuse in  Sicily,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty  years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era.  * 

26 


368  ANECDOTES, 

In  proof  of  Archimedes'1  knowledge  of  the  doctrines  of  specific 
gravities,  a  singular  fact  is  related  in  Vitruvius.  Hiero,  king  of 
Syracuse,  suspecting  that  in  making  a  golden  crown  which  he  had 
ordered,  the  workmen  had  stolen  part  of  the  gold,  and  substituted 
in  its  stead  an  equal  weight  of  silver,  he  applied  to  Archimedes, 
entreating  him  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  in  -  detecting  the  fraud. 
Contemplating  the  subject  one  day  as  he  was  in  the  bath,  it  occur- 
red to  him  that  he  displaced  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  the  bulk 
of  his  own  body.  Quitting  the  bath  with  that  eager  and  impetu- 
ous delight  which  a  new  discovery  naturally  excites  in  an  inquisitive 
mind,  he  ran  naked  into  the  street,  crying,  Eureka!  Eureka!  [I 
have  found  it  out !  I  have  found  it  out !]  Procuring  a  mass  of 
gold,  and  another  of  silver,  each  of  equal  weight  with  the  crown, 
he  observed  the .  quantity  of  fluid  which  each  displaced,  succes- 
sively, upon  being  inserted  in  the  same  vessel  full  of  water ;  he 
then  observed  how  much  water  was  displaced  by  the  crown  ;  and, 
upon  comparing  this  quantity  with  each  of  the  former,  soon  learn- 
ed the  proportions  of  silver  and  gold  in  the  crown. 

In  mechanics  and  optics  the  inventive  powers  of  Archimedes 
were  astonishing.  He  said,  with  apparent,  but  only  apparent,  ex- 
travagance, "  Give  me  a  place  to  stand  upon,  and  I  will  move  the 
earth  /"  for  he  perfectly  understood  the  doctrine  of  the  lever,  and 
well  knew,  that,  theoretically,  the  greatest  weight  may  be  moved 
by  the  smallest  power.  To  show  Hiero  the  wonderful  effect  of 
mechanic  powers,  he  is  said,  by  the  help  of  ropes  and  pulleys,  to 
have  drawn  towards  him,  with  perfect  ease,  a  galley  which  lay  on 
shore,  manned  and  loaded.  But  the  grand  proofs  of  his  skill  were 
given  during  the  siege  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus.  Whether  the 
vessels  of  the  besiegers  approached  near  the  walls  of  the  city,  or 
kept  at  a  considerable  distance,  Archimedes  found  means  to  annoy 
them.  When  they  ventured  closely  under  the  rampart  raised  on 
the  side  towards  the  sea,  he,  by  means  of  long  and  vast  beams, 
probably  hung  in  the  form  of  a  lever,  struck  with  prodigious  force 
upon  the  galleys,  and  sunk  them  :  or  by  means  of  grappling  hooks 
at  the  remote  extremity  of  other  levers,  he  caught  up  the  vessels 
into  the  air,  and  dashed  them  to  pieces  against  the  walls  or  the 
projecting  rocks.  When  the  enemy  kept  at  a  greater  distance, 
Archimedes  made  use  of  machines,  by  which  he  threw  from  be- 
hind the  walls  stones  in  vast  masses,  or  great  numbers,  which  shat- 
tered and  demolished  the  ships  or  the  machines  employed  in  the 
siege.  This  mathematical  Briareus,  as  Marcellus  jestingly  called 
him,  employed  his  hundred  arms  with  astonishing  effect.  His  me- 
chanical genius  was  the  informing  soul  of  the  besieged  city ;  and 
his  powerful  weapons  struck  the  astonished  Romans  with  terror. 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  369 

One,  in  particular,  consisting  of  a  mirror,  by  which  he  concentra- 
ted the  rays  of  the  sun  upon  the  besieging  vessels  and  set  them  on 
fire,  must  have  produced  an  extraordinary  impression  upon  those 
who  suffered  from  it,  seeing  that  it  was  of  so  wonderful  a  charac- 
ter as  to  be  thought  a  fiction  by  subsequent  ages,  until  its  reality 
was  proved  by  the  repetiton  of  the  experiment.  Buffpn  contrived 
and  made  a  burning-glass,  composed  of  about  four  hundred  glass 
planes,,  each  six  inches  square,  so  placed  as  to  form  a  concave 
mirror,  capable  of  melting  silver  at  the  distance  of  fifty  feet,  and 
lead  and  tin  at  the  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  and  of 
setting  fire  to  wood  at  the  distance  of  two  hundred  feet ;  and  the 
story  of  Archimedes1  instrument  for  burning  ships  at  a  great  dis- 
tance was  no  longer  ridiculed. 

Eminent  as  Archimedes  was  for  his  skill  and  invention  in  me- 
chanics, his  chief  excellence,  perhaps,  lay  in  the  rare  talent  which 
he  possessed  of  investigating  abstract  truths,  and  in  inventing  con- 
clusive demonstrations  in  the  higher  branches  of  pure  geometry. 
If  we  are  to  credit  the  representation  of  Plutarch,  he  looked  upon 
mechanic  inventions  as  far  inferior  in  value,  to  -  those  intellectual 
speculations  which  terminate  in  simple  truth,  and  carry  with  them 
irresistible  conviction.  Of  his  success  in  these  lucubrations,- the 
world  is  still  in  possession  of  admirable  proofs  in  the  geometrical 
treatises  which  he  left  behind  him.  Of  the  unremitting  ardor  with 
which  Ire  devoted  himself  to  mathematical  studies,  and  the  deep 
attention  with  which  he  pursued  them,  his  memoirs  afford  striking 
and  interesting  examples.'  It  is  related  of  him,  that  he  was  often 
so  totally  absorbed  in  mathematical  speculations,  as  to  neglect  his 
meals  and  the  care  of  his  person.  At  the  bath  he  would  frequent- 
ly draw  geometrical  figures  in  the  ashes,  or,  when  according  to 
the  "custom  he  was  anointed,  upon  his  own  body.  He  was  so  much 
delighted  with  the  discovery  of  the  ratio  between  the  sphere  and 
the  containing  cylinder,  that,  passing  over  all  his  mechanic  inven- 
tions, tis  a  memorial  of  this  discovery,  he  requested  -  his  friends  to 
place  upon  his  tomb  a  cylinder,  containing  a  sphere,  with  an  in- 
scription expressing  the  proportion  which  the  containing  solid  bears 
to  the  contained. 

No  sincere  admirer  of  scientific  merit  will  read  without  painful 
regret,  that  when  Syracuse,  after  all  the  defence  which  philosophy 
had  afforded  it,  was  taken  by  storm,  and  given  up  to  the  sword, 
notwithstanding  the  liberal  "exception  which  Marcellus  had  made 
in  favor  of  Archimedes,  by  giving  orders  that  his  house  and  his  per- 
son should  be  held  sacred,  at  a  moment  when  this  great  man  was 
so  intent  upon  some  mathematical  speculation  as  not  to  perceive 
that  the  city  was  taken,  and  even  when,  according  to  Cicero,  he 


370  ANECDOTES, 

was  actually  drawing  a  geometrical  figure  upon  the  sand,  an  igno- 
rant barbarian,  inthe  person  of  a  Roman  soldier,  without  allowing 
him  the  satisfaction  of  completing  the  solution  of  his  problem,  ran 
him  through  the  body.  This  event,  so  disgraceful  to  the  Roman 
character  and  to  human  nature,  happened  two  hundred  and  twelve 
years  before  Christ.  It  was  a  poor  compensation  for  the  insult 
offered  by  this  action  to  science  in  the  person  of  one  of  her  most 
favored  sons,  that  Marcellus,  in  the  midst  of  his  triumphal  laurels, 
lamented  the  fate  of  Archimedes,  and,  taking  upon  himself  the 
charge  of  his  funeral,  protected  and  honored  his  relations.  The 
disgrace  was  in  some  measure  cancelled,  when  Cicero,  a  hundred 
and  forty  years  afterwards,  paid  homage  to  his  forgotten  tomb. 
"  During  my  qusestorship,"  says  this  illustrious  Roman,  "  I  dili- 

§ently  sought  to  discover  the  sepulchre  of  Archimedes,  which  the 
yracusans  had  totally  neglected,  and  suffered  to  be  grown  over 
with  thorns  and  briers.  Recollecting  some  verses,  said  to  be  in- 
scribed upon  the  tomb,  which  mentioned  that  on  the  top  was  placed 
a  sphere  with  a  cylinder,  I  looked  round  me  upon  every  object  at 
the  Agragentine  Gate,  the  common  receptacle  of  the  dead.  At 
last  I  observed  a  little  column  which  just  rose  above  the  thorns, 
upon  which  was  placed  the  figure  of  a  sphere  and  cylinder.  This, 
said  I  to  the  Syracusan  nobles  who  were  with  me,  this  must,  I  think, 
be  what  I  am  seeking.  Several  persons  were  immediately  employed 
to  clear  away  the  weeds  and  lay  open  the  spot.  As  soon  as  a  pas- 
sage was  opened,  we  drew  near,  and  found  on  the  opposite  base  the 
inscription,  with  nearly  half  the  latter  part  of  the  verses  worn 
away.  Thus  would  this  most  famous,  and  formerly  most  learned 
city  of  Greece,  have  remained  a  stranger  to  the  tomb  of  one  of  its 
most  ingenious  citizens,  had  it  not  been  discovered  by  a  man  of 
Arpinum.'" 


The  Inventor  of  the  Iron  Plough. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  wooden  plough 
has  very  generally  been  supplanted  in  Scotland,  and  in  a  consider- 
able degree  in  England,  America,  and  other  parts  of  the  world,  by 
a  similar  implement  formed  of  iron.  This  change,  indeed,  is  irre- 
sistible, as  not  only  is  the  latter  implement  more  durable,  but,  being 
lighter,  more  convenient,  and  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  it  pro- 
duces a  great  saving  in  time  and  labor. 

We  have  been  informed  that  the  author  of  this  great  and  sudden 
improvement  upon  a  machine  which  may  be  said  to  have  continu- 
ed unchanged  for  thousands  of  years,  was  William  Allan,  of  Stone- 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  371 

house,  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  a  man  of  considerable  activity  of 
mind,  and  inventive  genius,  but  in  all  other  respects  a  simple  and 
unambitious  peasant.  He  was  the  son  of  a  country  farrier  and 
smith,  and  brought  up  as  a  farmer.  "Falling,  at  his  father's  death, 
into  the  possession  of  his  tools,  he  was  led,  by  a  natural  bent  towards 
the  mechanical  arts,  to  attempt  various  improvements  upon  the 
rustic  implements  which  he  used.  In  the  winter  of  1803-4,  he 
first  conceived  the  daring. idea  of  altering  the  material  of  the  plough 
to  iron,  and  with  his  own  hands  constructed  one  of  that  metal, 
which  he  thenceforward  used  on  his  own  farm.  "  William  Allan's 
Iron  Plough,'1  instantly  acquired  local  fame,  and  people  came  from 
all  parts  of  the  district  to  see  it.  Its  celebrity  continued  to  extend, 
until  enlightened  persons  at  a  distance  heard  of  it,  and  were  also 
attracted  in  considerable  numbers  to  witness  its  operations.  Mr. 
Campbell  of  Shawfield  was  the  first  patron  of  agricultural  improve- 
ment who  ventured  to  have  one  made.  He  thought  it  would  be  a 
suitable  implement  for  his  Highland  farms,  and  requested  Allan  to 
make  one  for  him,  with  the  view  of  having  others  if  the  first  should 
give  satisfaction.  But  Allan,  though  a  constant  dabbler  in  iron 
work,  could  not  allow  himself  to  think  so  well  of  his  abilities  in 
that  line,  as  to  undertake  the  construction  of  a  plough  for  so  great 
a  man  as  Mr.  Campbell ;  and  he  recommended  that  Mr.  Gray,  a 
respectable  blacksmith  at  the  neighboring  village  of  Uddingston, 
should  be  employed  to  execute  the  job. 

Gray  accordingly  made  an  iron  plough  for  Mr.  Campbell,  under 
the  directions  of  the  inventor ;  and  the  article  being  found  satis- 
factory, he  was  immediately  employed  to  make  others.  Ere.  long, 
orders  came  so  fast  upon  him  for  iron  ploughs,  that,  not  having  suf- 
ficient capital  for  his  increased  business,  he  was  obliged  to  take  in 
a  moneyed  partner.  For  some  timq  the  manufacture  of  iron  ploughs 
was  limited  to  this  little  village;  but  at  length  other  artificers 
throughout  the  kingdom  ventured  to  make  them  too,  and,  in  time, 
they  were  found  universally  diffused.  As  might  be  expected,  sev- 
eral improvements  were  made  upon  the  first  comparatively  rude 
attempt  of  William  Allan ;  but  the  principle  in  all  cases  remained 
unaltered.  In  the  mean  time,  while  so  many  were  profiting  by 
the  manufacture  of  the  article,  and  while  the  whole  nation  was  a 
gainer  by  its  economy  and  durability,  the  simple  inventor  remain- 
ed in  his  obscurity,  contented  with  the  reflection  that  he  had  done 
his  country  some  service. 

26* 


37$  ANECDOTES, 

Cotton  manufacture  of  India. 

The  cotton  manufacture  of  India  is  not  carried  on  in  a  few 
large  towns,  or  in  one  or  two  districts ;  it  is  universal.  The 
growth  of  cotton  is  nearly  as  general  as  that  of  food ;  everywhere 
the  women  spend  their  time  in  spinning,  and  almost  every  village 
contains  its  weavers,  who  supply  the  inhabitants  with  the  scanty 
clothing  they  require.  Being  a  domestic  manufacture,  and  carried 
on  with  the  rudest  and  cheapest  apparatus,  it  requires  neither 
capital  or  mills,  nor  an  assemblage  of  various  trades.  The  cotton 
is  separated  from  the  seeds  by  a  small  rude  hand-mill  or  gin,  which 
is  turned  by  a  woman.  This  mill  consists  of  two  rollers  of  teak- 
wood  fluted  lengthwise,  with  five  or  six  grooves,  and  revolving 
nearly  in  contact.  The  upper  roller  is  turned  by  a  handle,  and 
the  lower  is  carried  along  with  it  by  means  of  a  perpetual  screw 
at  the  axis.  The  cotton  is  put  in  at  one  side,  and  drawn  through 
by  the  revolving  rollers  ;  the  seeds  being  too  large  to  pass  through 
the  opening,  are  torn  off  and  fall  down  on  the  opposite  side  from 
the  cotton.  The  next  operation  is  that  of  bowing  the  cotton,  to 
clear  it  from  knots  and  dirt.  A  large  bow,  made  elastic  by  a 
complication  of  strings,  is  used  ;  this  being  put  in  contact  with  a 
heap  of  cotton,  the  workman  strikes  the  string  with  a  heavy  wooden 
mallet,  and  its  vibrations  open  the  knots  of  the  cotton,  shake  from 
it  the  dirt,  and  raise  it  to  a  downy  fleece.  The  hand-mill  and  bow 
have  been  used  immemorially  throughout  all  the  countries  of  Asia. 
The  cotton  being  thus  prepared,  without  any  carding,  it  is  spun  by 
the  women ;  the  coarse  yarn  is  spun  on  a  heavy  one-thread  wheel 
of  the  rudest  carpentry,  made  of  teak-wood. 


INDIAN   SPINNING-WHEEL. 


The  finer  yarn  is  spun  with  a  metallic  spindle,  sometimes  with 
and  sometimes  without  a  distaff;  a,  bit  of  clay  is  attached  a»  a 


HINDOOS    WEAVING. 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  375 

Weight  to  one  end  of  the  spindle,  which  is  turned  round  with  the 
left  hand  while  the  cotton  is  supplied  with  the  right ;  the  thread 
is  wound  up  on  a  small  piece  of  wood.  The  spinster  keeps  her 
fingers  dry  by  the  use  of  a  chalky  powder.  In  this  simple  way 
the  Indian  women,  whose  sense  of  touch  is  most  acute  and  deli- 
cate,  produce  yarns  which  are  finer  and  far  more  tenacious  than 
any  of  the  machine  spun  yarns  of  Europe. 

The  yarn  having  been  reeled  and  warped  in  the  simplest  pos- 
sible manner,  is  given  to  the  weaver,  whose  loom  is  as  rude  an 
apparatus  as  can  be  imagined ;  consisting  merely  of  two  bamboo 
rollers  for  the  warp  and  web,  and  a  pair  of  gear.  The  shuttle 
performs  the  double  office  of  shuttle  and  batten,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose is  made  like  a  large  netting  needle,  and  of  a  length  somewhat 
exceeding  the  breadth  of  the  piece.  This  apparatus  the  weaver 
carries  to  a  tree,  under  which  he  digs  a  hole  large  enough  to  con- 
tain his  legs  and  the  lower  part  of  his  gear.  He  then  stretches 
his  warp  by  fastening  the  bamboo  rollers  at  a  due  distance  from 
each  other  on  the  turf  by  wooden  pins ;  the  balances  of  the  gear 
he  fastens  to  some  convenient  branch  of  the  tree  over  his  head ; 
two  loops  underneath  the  gear,  into  which  he  inserts  his  great  toes, 
serve  instead  of  treadles,  and  his  long  shuttle,  which  also  performs 
the  office  of  batten,  draws  the  weft  through  the  warp,  -and  after- 
wards strikes  it  up  close  to  the  web.  There  is  not  so  much  as  an 
expedient  for  rolling  up  the  warp ;  it  is  stretched  out  at  the  full 
length  of  the  web,  which  makes  the  house  of  the  weaver  insuffi- 
cient to  contain  him.  He  is  therefore  obliged  to  work  continually 
in  the  open  air,  and  every  return  of  inclement  weather  interrupts 
him. 

It  cannot  but  seem  astonishing,  that  in  a  department  of  industry 
where  the  raw  material  is  so  grossly  neglected,  the  machinery  so 
rude,  and  the  division  of  labor  so  little,  that  the  results  should  be 
fabrics  of  the  most  exquisite  delicacy  and  beauty,  unrivalled  by 
the  products  of  other  nations,  even  those  best  skilled  in  the  me- 
chanic arts.  This  anomaly  is  explained  by  the  remarkably  fine 
sense  of  touch  possessed  by  that  effeminate  people,  their  patience 
and  gentleness,  and  by  the  hereditary  continuance  of  a  particular 
species  of  manufacture  in  families  through  many  generations, 
which  leads  to  the  training  of  children  from  their  very  infancy  in 
the  processes  of  the  art.  The  rigid,  clumsy  fingers  of  an  European 
would  scarcely  be  able  to  make  a  piece  of  canvass  with  the  instru- 
ments which  are  all  that  an  Indian  employs  in  making  a  piece  of 
cambric  (muslin.)  It  is  farther  remarkable,  that  every  distinct 
kind  of  cloth  is  the  production  of  a  particular  district,  in  which  the 
fabric  has  been  transmitted,  perhaps  for  centuries,  from  father  to 


376  ANECDOTES, 

son.  The  unequalled  manual  skill  of  the  Indian  weaver  may  be 
thus  explained : — It  is  a  sedentary  occupation,  and  thus  in  har- 
mony with  his  predominant  inclination ;  it  requires  patience,  of 
which  he  has  an  inexhaustible  fund  ;  it  requires  little  bodily  exer- 
tion, of  which  he  is  always  exceedingly  sparing ;  and  the  finer 
the  production,  the  more  slender  the  force  he  is  called  upon  to 
apply.  But  this  is  not  all :  the  weak  and  delicate  frame  of  the 
Hindoo  is  accompanied  with  an  acuteness  of  external  sense,  par- 
ticularly of  touch,  which  is  altogether  unrivalled,  and  the  flexibility 
of  his  fingers  is  equally  remarkable.  The  hand  of  the  Hindoo, 
therefore,  constitutes  an  organ  adapted  to  the  finest  operations  of 
the  loom,  in  a  degree  which  is  almost,  or  altogether,  peculiar  to 
himself. 

It  is,  then,  to  a  physical  organization  in  the  natives,  admirably 
suited  to  the  processes  of  spinning  and  weaving ;  to  the  possession 
of  the  raw  material  in  the  greatest  abundance ;  to  the  possession, 
also,  of  the  most  brilliant  dyes  for  staining  and  printing  the  cloth ; 
to  a  climate  that  renders  the  colors  lively  and  durable ;  and  to  the 
hereditary  practice  by  particular  castes,  classes,  and  families,  both 
of  the  manual  and  chemical  processes  required  in  the  manufac- 
ture ;  it  is  to  these  causes,  with  very  little  aid  from  science,  and 
in  an  almost  barbarous  state  of  the  mechanical  arts,  that  India 
owes  her  long  supremacy  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton. 

One  fact  strikingly  manifests  the  national  -character  of  this 
people.  It  is  said  that  all  the  Indian  weavers,  who  weave  for 
common  sale,  make  the  woof  of  one  end  of  the  cloth  coarser  than 
that  of  the  other,  and  attempt  to  sell  to  the  unwary  by  the  fine  end, 
although  almost  every  one  who  deals  with  them  is  perfectly  aware 
of  the  circumstance  ;  and  it  is,  therefore,  a  rare  chance  if  a  single 
opportunity  occurs  to  the  weaver  to  gain  by  this  means  during  the 
whole  course  of  his  life  ! 


Description  of  the  Bridge  at  the  Niagara  Falls. 

The  bridge  across  the  rapids  of  the  river  Niagara  is  placed 
only  two  or  three  hundred  yards  from  the  edge  of  the  great  falls. 
It  extends  from  the  American  bank  of  the  river  to  Goat  Island, 
which  separates  what  is  called  the  "  American"  from  the  "  British 
fall."  The  superstructure  of  the  bridge  is  formed  of  timber.  It 
is  396  feet  in  length,  and  is  supported  on  six  piers,  formed  partly 
of  stone  and  partly  of  wood.  When  I  visited  the  falls  of  Niagara 
in  the  month  of  May,  the  ice  carried  down  from  Lake  Erie  by  the 
rapids  of  the  river  was  rushing  past  the  piers  of  this  bridge  with 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  377 

a  degree  of  violence  that  was  quite  terrific,  and  seemed  every 
moment  to  threaten  their  destruction. 

The  following  very  interesting  account  of  this  work  is  given  by 
Captain  Hall : — 

"  The  erection  of  such  a  bridge  at  such  a  place  is  a  wonderful 
effort  of  boldness  and  skill,  and  does  the  projector  and  artist,  Judge 
Porter,  the  highest  honor  as  an  engineer.  This  is  the  second 
bridge  of  the  kind ;  but  the  first  being  built  in  the  still  water  at 
the  top  of  the  rapids,  the  enormous  sheets  of  ice,  drifted  from 
Lake  Erie,  soon  demolished  the  work,  and  carried  it  over  the 
falls.  Judge  Porter,  however,  having  observed  that  the  ice  in 
passing  along  the  rapids  was  speedily  broken  into  small  pieces, 
fixed  his  second  bridge  much  lower  down,  at  a  situation  never 
reached  by  the  larger  masses  of  ice. 

"  The  essential  difficulty  was  to  establish  a  foundation  for  his 
piers  on  the  bed  of  a  river  covered  with  huge  blocks  of  stone,  and 
over  which  a  torrent  was  dashing  at  the  rate  of  six  or  seven  miles 
an  hour.  He  first  placed  two  long  beams,  extending  from  the 
shore  horizontally  forty  or  fifty  feet  over  the  rapids,  at  the  height 
of  six  or  eight  feet,  and  counterbalanced  by  a  load  at  the  inner 
ends.  These  were  about  two  yards  asunder;  but  light  planks 
being  laid  across,  men  were  enabled  to  walk  along  them  in  safety. 
Their  extremities  were  next  supported  by  upright  bars  passed 
through  holes  in  the  ends,  and  resting  on  the  ground.  A  strong 
open  frame-work  of  timber,  not  unlike  a  wild  beast's  cage,  but 
open  at  top  and  bottom,  was  then  placed  in  the  water  immediately 
under  Ijie  ends  of  the  beams.  This  being  loaded  with  stones,  was 
gradually  sunk  till  some  one  part  of  it — no  matter  which — touched 
the  rocks  lying  on  the  bottom.  As  soon  as  it  was  ascertained  that 
this  had  taken  place,  the  sinking  operation  was  arrested,  and  a 
series  of  strong  planks,  three  inches  in  thickness,  were  placed, 
one  after  the  other,  in  the  river,  in  an  upright  position,  and  touch- 
ing  the  inner  sides  of  the  frame-work.  These  planks,  or  upright 
posts,  were  now  thrust  downwards  till  they  obtained  a  firm  lodg- 
ment among  the  stones  at  the  bottom  of  the  river ;  and,  being  then 
securely  bolted  to  the  upper  part  of  the  frame-work,  might  be  con- 
sidered parts  of  it.  As  each  plank  reached  to  the  ground,  it  acted 
as  a  leg,  and  gave  the  whole  considerable  stability,  while  the  water 
flowed  freely  through  openings  about  a  foot  wide,  left  between  the 
planks. 

"  This  great  frame  or  box,  being  then  filled  with  large  stones 
tumbled  in  from  above,  served  the  purpose  of  a  nucleus  to  a  larger 
pier  built  round  it,  of  much  stronger  timbers  firmly  bolted  together, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  outer  case,  distant  from  the  first  pier 


378  ANECDOTES, 

about  three  feet  on  all  its  four  sides.  The  intermediate  space  be- 
tween the  two  frames  was  then  filled  up  by  large  masses  of  rock. 
This  constituted  the  first  pier. 

"  A  second  pier  was  easily  built  in  the  same  way,  by  projecting 
beams  from  the  first  one,  as  had  been  previously  done  from  the 
shore  ;  and  so  .on,  step  by  step,  till  the  bridge  reached  Goat  Island. 
Such  is  the  solidity  of  these  structures,  that  none  of  them  has  ever 
moved  since  it  was  first  erected,  several  years  before  we  sawit.n 


Thomas  Godfrey, 

The.  inventor  of  the  Quadrant,  was  born  in  the  year  1704,  near 
Germantbwn,  Pennsylvania.  Losing  his  father  when  very  young, 
and  his  mother  marrying  again,  he  was  put  out  to  learn  the  busi- 
ness of  a  painter  and  glazier  at  Stanton,  a  village  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Philadelphia. 

Very  little  has  been  preserved  respecting  his  history.  From 
all  accounts  he  must  have  been  a  person  of  considerable  ingenuity. 
His  affection  for  mathematics  occurred  at  an  early  period  from  a 
chance  opportunity  of  reading  a  book  on  that  science.  .Finding 
the  subject  perplexed  with  Latin  terms,  he  applied  himself  with 
such  diligence  as  to  overcome  the  difficulty  arising  from  this 
source. 

It  is  related  that  when  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  celebrated  mathe- 
matical work  made  its  appearance,  the  best  scholars  were  obliged 
to  study  it  with  care,  and  those  of  a  lower  rank  durst  not  venture 
upon  it  at  all.  The  American  glazier,  without  encouragement 
from  any  quarter,  and  wholly  self-taught,  ventured  upon  and  mas- 
tered this  great  work  at  an  early  age,  and  finally,  with  the  embar- 
rassments of  an  humble  trade  and  extreme  poverty,  produced  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  instruments. 

There  has  been  heretofore  considerable  controversy  existing, 
as  to  whom  belonged  the  honor  of  this  invention.  The  conclusion 
now  is,  that  Hadley  and  Godfrey  invented  their  instruments  nearly 
simultaneously  and  independently.  While  the  Englishman,  with 
every  .ad  vantage  of  pursuit,  "stumbled  upon"  the  invention,  and  is 
honored  in  its  name,  to  our  countryman  belongs  the  true  glory, 
for  his  was  the  result  of  unassisted  genius,  acting  under  adverse 
circumstances. 

Peace  to  his  ashes :  although  no  storied  urn  or  monumental  bust 
marks  the  spot  of  his  repose,  yet  his  memory  will  live  as  long  as 
his  country  preserves  a  jus-t  sense  of  the  merits  of  her  sons,  or 
the  wings  of  commerce  spread  the  sea. 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  379 

Musical  Kaleidescope. 

Some  years  ago  an  attempt  was  made — it  was  said,  success- 
fully— to  produce  tunes  on  a  principle  not  unlike  that  by  which 
the  kaleidescope  was  made  to  produce  carpet  and  shawl  patterns. 
The  materials  employed  for  the  purpose  consisted  of 'prepared 
cards,  on  each  of  which  a  bar  of  an  air  was  arranged  according 
to  a  certain  rhythm  and  key.  Four  packs  of  these  cards,  marked 
A,  B,  C,  and  D,  were  mingled  together,  and  the  cards  were  drawn 
and  arranged  before  a  performer  at  random.  Thus  an  original 
air  was  obtained.  The  plan  was  said  to  succeed  particularly  well 
in  waltzes. 


Bernard  Palissy. 

The  celebrated  BERNARD  PALISSY,  to  whom  France  was  in. 
debted,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  for  the  introduction  of  the  manu- 
facture of  enamelled  pottery,  had  his  attention  first  attracted  to 
the  art,  his  improvements  in  which  form  to  this  time  the  glory  of 
his  name  among  his  countrymen,  by  having  one  day  seen  by 
chance  3,  beautiful  enamelled  cup,  which  had  been  brought  from 
Italy.  He  was  then  struggling  to  support  his  family  by  his  at- 
tempts in  the  art  of  painting,  in  which  he  was  self-taught ;  and  it 
immediately  occurred  to  him  that,  if  he  could  discover  the  secret 
of  making  these  cups,  his  toils  and  difficulties  would  be  at  an  end. 
From  that  moment  his  whole  thoughts  were  directed  to  this  ob- 
ject ;  and  in  one  of  his  works  he  has  himself  given  us  such  an 
account  of  the  unconquerable  zeal  with  which  he  prosecuted  his 
experiments,  as  it  is  impossible  to  read  without  the  deepest 
interest. 

For  some  time  he  had  little  or  nothing  to  expend  upon  the  pur- 
suit which  he  had  so  much  at  heart ;  but  at  last  he  happened  to 
receive  a  considerable  sum  of  money  for  a  work  which  he  had 
finished,  and  this  enabled  him  to  commence  his  researches.  He 
spent  the  whole  of  his  money,  however,  without  meeting  with  any 
success,  and  he  was  now  poorer  than  ever.  Yet  it  was  in  vain 
that  his  wife  and  his  friends  besought  him  to  relinquish  what  they 
deemed  his  chimerical  and  ruinous  project.  He  borrowed  more 
money,  with  which  he  repeated  his  experiments ;  and,  when  he 
had  no  more  fuel  wherewith  to  feed  his  furnaces,  he  cut  down  his 
chairs  and  tables  for  that  purpose.  Still  his  success  was  incon- 
siderable. He  was  now  actually  obliged  to  give  a  person,  who 
had  assisted  him,  part  of  his  clothes  by  way  of  remuneration, 


380  ANECDOTES, 

having  nothing  else  left ;  and,  with  his  wife  and  children  starving 
before  his  eyes,  and  by  their  appearance  silently  reproaching  him 
as  the  cause  of  their  sufferings,  he  was  at  heart  miserable  enough. 
But  he  neither  despaired  nor  suffered  his  friends  to  know  what  he 
felt ;  preserving,  in  the  midst  of  all  his  misery,  a  gay  demeanor, 
and  losing  no  opportunity  of  renewing  his  pursuit  of  the  object 
which  he  all  the  while  felt  confident  he  should  one  day  accomplish. 
And  at  last,  after  sixteen  years  of  persevering  exertion,  his  efforts 
were  crowned  with  complete  success,  and  his  fortune  was  made. 
Palissy  was,  in  all  respects,  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  men 
of  his  time  ;  in  his  moral  character  displaying  a  high-mindedness 
and  commanding  energy  altogether  in  harmony  with  the  reach 
and  originality  of  conception  by  which  his  understanding  was  dis- 
tinguished. 

Although  a  Protestant,  he  had  escaped,  through  tl^e  royal  favor, 
from  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew ;  but,  having  been  soon 
after  shut  up  in  the  Bastile,  he  was  visited  in  his  prison  by  the 
king,  who  told  him,  that  if  he  did  not  comply  with  the  established 
religion,  he  should  be  forced,  however  unwillingly,  to  leave  him 
in  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  "  Forced  !"  replied  Palissy.  "  This 
is  not  to  speak  like  a  king ;  but  they  who  force  you  cannot  force 
me  ;  I  can  die  !  Your  whole  people  have  not  the  power  to  com- 
pel a  simple  potter  to  lend  his  knee!'1''  He  never  regained  his 
liberty,  but  ended  his  life  in  the  Bastile,  in  the  ninetieth  year  of 
his  age. 


Dyeing  Cloth  of  two  Colors. 

The  following  method  of  dyeing  the  opposite  sides  of  cloth 
different  colors,  is  practised  by  the  manufacturers : — A  paste  is 
prepared  of  the  finest  flour,  which  is  spread  on  one  side :  the 
cloth  is  then  doubled,  and  the  edges  closely  sewn  together  :  on  its 
immersion  in  the  heated  dye  the  enclosed  air  expands,  and  none 
of  the  coloring  matter  affects  the  inside  of  the  cloth.  When  this 
process  is  completed,  the  cloth  is  unsewn,  a  paste  spread  on  the 
side  already  dyed,  and  the  same  method  is  pursued  with  regard 
to  the  other  color. 


Remarkable  Wooden  Bridge. 

Near  Rochester,  in  the  state  of  New- York,  there  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  bridge  over  the  Genessee  river,  called  Clyde  Bridge, 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  381 

which,  when  entire,  was  altogether  unrivalled  by  any  thing  of  a 
similar  kind,  either  in  America  or  Europe.  It  consisted  of  a 
single  arch  of  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  feet  span,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety-six  feet  high,  from  the  surface  of  the  river.  It 
was  seven  hundred  and  eighteen  feet  long,  and  thirty  wide ;  and, 
though  the  whole  structure  contained  more  than  one  hundred  and 
thirty  thousand  feet  of  timber,  it  was  completed  by  twenty  work- 
men in  the  space  of  nine  months.  Dr.  Howison,  who  visited  it 
about  the  year  1830,  gives  the  following  description  of  its  then 
ruined  state : — "  The  road  I  took  led  me  to  the  edge  of  the  cliffs 
that  confine  the  Genessee  river :  this  stream  roared  ninety  feet 
beneath  me,  and  a  half'  arch  stretched  far  above  my  head,  as  it 
were  '  suspended  in  mid  air,'  while  on  the  opposite  cliffs  heaps  of 
planks,  shattered  beams,  and  many  massy  supporters,  lay  in  hor- 
rible confusion,  being  the  remains  of  that  part  of  the  structure 
which  had  fallen.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  exquisite,  the  elegant 
proportions,  and  the  aerial  magnificence  of  that  part  of  the  bridge 
which  remains  entire.  Its  complicated  architecture,  the  colossal 
span  of  its  arch,  its  appalling  height  above  the  surface  of  the  wa- 
ter, and  the  noble  scenery  around,  fill  the  mind  with  astonishment. 
A  little  way  up  the  river,  the  lesser  Genessee  rushes  over  broken 
rocks,  while  the  woods  which  bound  the  prospect  on  all  sides,  and 
darkly  overshadow  the  hoary  cliffs,  communicates  a  wildness  to 
the  scene,  that  makes  the  imaginative  spectator  almost  believe 
that  the  bridge  above  him  has  been  raised  by  the  spells  of  a  ma* 
gician,  rather  than  by  the  hands  of  man." 


Celebrated  and  Curious  Clocks. 

About  the  year  1369,  an  artist  named  James  Dondi,  constructed 
a  clock  for  the  city  of  Padua,  by  order  of  Herbert,  Prince  of  Ca- 
rara,  which  was  long  considered  the  wonder  of  that  age.  This  is 
the  first  clock  on  record  having  its  dial-plate  divided  into  twenty- 
four  hours,  (day  and  night ;)  but  it  has  been  disputed,  (as  is  com- 
mon in  all  first  inventions,)  whether  or  not  Dondi,  who  was 
afterwards  called  Horologius,  was  the  original  inventor ;  this  clock, 
besides  indicating  the  hours,  represented  the  motions  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  planets,  and  also  pointed  out  the  different  festivals  of 
the  year. 

The  celebrated  clock  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Strasburg,  has 
been  long  celebrated  for  the  great  variety  and  complication  of  its 
movements ;  it  was  begun  some  time  in  the  year  1352,  and  erect- 
ed into  the  spire  of  the  cathedral  in  the  year  1370.  The  follow. 

27 


382  ANECDOTES, 

ing  is  a  short  description  of  this  singular  piece  of  mechanism :  On 
the  dial-plate  was  exhibited  a  celestial  globe,  with  the  motions  of 
the  sun,  moon,  earth,  and  planets,  and  the  various  phases  of  the 
moon ;  also  a  sort  of  perpetual  almanac,  on  which  the  day  of  the 
month  was  pointed  out  by  a  statue.  It  had  a  golden  cock  which 
on  the  arrival  of  every  successive  hour  flapped  its  wings,  stretched 
forth  its  neck,  and  crowed  twice  !  The  hour  was  struck  on  the 
bell  by  a  figure  representing  an  angel,  who  opened  a  door  and  sa- 
luted a  figure  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Near  him  stood  another  angel, 
who  held  an  hour-glass,  which  he  turned  as  soon  as  it  had  finished 
striking.  The  first  quarter  of  the  hour  was  struck  by  a  child  with 
an  apple,  the  second  quarter  by  a  youth  with  an  arrow,  the  third 
quarter  by  a  man  with  the  tip  of  his  staff,  and  the  fourth  and  last 
quarter  by  an  old  man  with  his  crutch. 

This  celebrated  clock  has,  however,  been  much  altered  from  the 
original,  if  not  entirely  renewed,  by  Conrad  Dasypodius,  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Strasburg.  It  was  finished 
in  the  space  of  three  years,  having  been  begun  in  May,  1571,  and 
finished  June  24th,  1574.  After  it  was  replaced  in  the  spire  of 
the  cathedral,  it  exhibited  the  following  particulars  : — The  base- 
ment of  the  clock  showed  three  dial-plates,  one  of  which  was  round, 
and  made  up  of  several  concentric  circles ;  the  two  interior  ones 
perform  their  revolutions  in  a  year,  and  thus  serve  as  a  calendar ; 
the  two  lateral  dial-plates  are  squares,  and  serve  to  indicate  the 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  Above  the  middle  dial-plate,  the 
days  of  the  week  are  represented  by  different  divinities,  supposed 
to  preside  over  the  planets  from  which  their  common  appellations 
are  derived.  The  divinity  of  the  current  day  appears  in  a  car 
rolling  over  the  clouds,  and  at  midnight  retires  to  give  place  to  the 
succeeding  one.  Before  the  basement  a  globe  is  displayed,  borne 
on  the  wings  of  a  pelican,  round  which  the  sun  and  moon  are  made 
to  revolve,  and  consequently  represents  the  motion  of  those  bodies. 
The  ornamental  turret  above  said  basement  exhibits  a  large  dial 
in  the  form  of  an  astrolabe,  which  shows  the  annual  motion  of  the 
sun  and  moon  through  the  ecliptic,  as  also  the  hours  of  the  day, 
etc.  The  phases  of  the  moon  are  also  marked  on  a  dial-plate 
above.  Over  this  dial-plate  are  represented  the  four  ages  of  man 
by  symbolical  figures,  one  of  which  passes  every  quarter  of  an 
hour,  and  marks  this  division  of  time  by  striking  on  small  bells, 
(as  in  the  old  clock.)  Two  angels  are  a4so  seen  in  motion,  one 
striking  a  bell  with  a  sceptre,  while  the  other  turns  an  hour-glass 
at  the  expiration  of  every  hour.  This  celebrated  clock  has  lately 
undergone  repair. 

According  to  Dr.  Derham,  the  oldest  English  made  clock  extant 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  383 

is  the  one  placed  in  the  principal  turret  of  the  Palace  Royal,  Hamp- 
ton Court,  near  London ;  it  was  constructed  in  the  year  1540,  by 
a  maker  of  the  initials  of  N.  O. 

Some  time  about  the  year  1560,  the  celebrated  Danish  astrono- 
mer, Tycho  Brahe,  was  in  possession  of  four  clocks,  which  indi- 
cated the  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds ;  the  largest  of  which  had 
only  three  wheels,  one  of  which  was  about  three  feet  in  diameter, 
and  had  twelve  hundred  teeth  in  it ;  a  proof  that  clock-work  was 
then  in  a  vei-y  imperfect  state.  Tycho,  however,  observed  that 
there  were  some  irregularities  in  the  going  of  his  clocks,  which 
depended  upon  the  changes  of  the  atmosphere ;  but  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  known  how  such  an  effect  was  produced,  so  as  to 
apply  some  remedy  to  cure  the  evil. 

Moestlin  had  a  clock  in  the  year  1577,  so  constructed  as  to  make 
just  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty-eight  beats  in  an  hour, 
one  hundred  and  forty-six  of  which  were  counted  during  the  sun's 
passage  over  a  meridian,  or  azimuth  line,  and  thereby  determined 
his  diameter  to  be  34'  13" ;  so  the  science  of  astronomy  began 
thus  early  to  be  promoted  by  clock-work ;  and  as  clocks  first  pro- 
moted the  study  of  astronomy,  it  will  be  observed  that  astronomy 
in  its  turn  gave  rise  to  some  of  the  most  essential  improvements 
in  clock-work,  and  that  the  arts  and  sciences  were  more  and  more 
cultivated  as  improvements  in  clock-work  kept  pace  with  them,  and 
employed  the  talents  of  the  most  ingenious  men  of  every  succeed- 
ing age. 

Mr.  Ferguson,  in  his  Select  Mechanical  Exercises,  describes 
two  very  curious  clocks  of  his  invention  and  construction ;  name- 
ly, a  clock  for  showing  the  mean  apparent  diurnal  motions  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  age  and  phases  of  the  moon,  with  the  mean 
time  of  her  meridian  passage,  and  the  times  of  high  and  low  water ; 
all  of  these  particulars  being  exhibited  by  having  only  two  wheels 
and  one  pinion  added  to  the  common  clock  movement ;  in  this  clock 
the  figure  of  the  sun  serves  as  an  hour  index,  by  going  round  the 
dial  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  a  figure  of  the  moon  goes  round  in 
twenty-four  hours  and  fifty  and  a  half  minutes,  being  nearly  the 
period  of  her  revolution  in  the  heavens  from  any  meridian  to  the 
same  meridian  again.  It  has  been  remarked,  that  this  clock  must 
have  been  modelled  by  Mr.  Ferguson  from  the  fashion  of  the  cele- 
brated clock  at  Hampton  Court.  The  other  clock  by  Mr.  Fergu- 
son is  an  astronomical  one,  showing  the  mean  apparent  daily  mo 
tions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  with  the  mean  times  of  their  rising, 
southing,  and  setting  ;  the  places  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  eclip- 
tic, and  the  age  and  phases  of  the  moon  for  every  day  in  the  year. 

"  On  Monday,  April  27th,  1762,"  says  Wesley,  in  his  journal, 


384  ANECDOTES, 

"  being  at  Lurgan,  in  Ireland,  I  embraced  the  opportunity  which  I 
had  long  desired  of  talking  with  Mr.  Miller,  the  contriver  of  that 
statue  which  was  in  Lurgan  when  I  was  there  before.  It  was  the 
figure  of  an  old  man  standing  in  a  case,  with  a  curtain  drawn  be. 
fore  him,  over  against  a  clock  which  stood  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  room.  Every  time  the  clock  struck,  he  opened  the  door  with 
one  hand,  drew  back  the  curtain  with  the  other,  turned  his  head 
as  if  looking  round  on  the  company,  and  then  said  with  a  clear, 
loud,  articulate  voice,  "past  one,"  or  "  two,"  or  "  three,"  and  so 
on.  But  so  many  came  to  see  this,  (the  like  of  which  all  allowed 
was  not  to  be  seen  in  Europe,)  that  Mr.  Miller  was  in  danger  of 
being  ruined ;  not  having  time  to  attend  to  his  own  business.  So, 
as  none  offered  to  pay  him  for  his  pains,  he  took  the  whole  machine 
to  pieces. 

In  the  gardens  of  the  Palais  Royal  andthe  Luxembourg,  at  Paris, 
is  a  cannon  dock ;  a  contrivance  invented  by  one  Rosseau.  A 
burning-glass  is  fixed  over  the  vent  of  a  cannon,  so  that  the  sun's 
rays,  at  the  moment  of  its  passing  the  meridian,  are  concentrated 
on  the  priming,  and  the  piece  is  fired.  The  glass  is  regulated  for 
this  purpose  every  month. 

It  is  now  time  to  mention  a  clock  of  almost  miraculous  proper- 
ties,  constructed  by  a  Genevan  mechanic  of  the  name  of  Droz, 
towards  the  end  of  the  last  century.  The  clock  in  question  was 
so  constructed  as  to  be  capable  of  performing  the  following  sur- 
prising movements,  (if  the  account  can  be  credited  :) — There  was 
exhibited  on  it  a  negro,  a  shepherd,  and  a  dog.  When  the  clock 
struck,  the  shepherd  played  six  tunes  on  his  flute,  and  the  dog  ap- 
proached and  fawned  upon  him.  This  clock  was  exhibited  to  the 
king  of  Spain,  who  was  greatly  delighted  with  it.  "  The  gentle- 
ness of  my  dog,"  said  Droz,  "  is  his  least  merit.  If  your  majesty 
touch  one  of  the  apples  which  you  see  in  the  shepherd's  basket, 
you  will  admire  the  fidelity  of  this  animal."  The  king  took  an 
apple,  and  the  dog  flew  at  his  hand,  and  barked  so  loud,  that  the 
king's  dog,  which  was  in  the  same  room  during  the  exhibition,  began 
to  bark  also  ;  at  this,  the  courtiers,  not  doubting  that  it  was  an  affair 
of  witchcraft,  hastily  left  the  room,  crossing  themselves  as  they 
went  out.  The  minister  of  marine,  who  was  the  only  one  who 
ventured  to  stay  behind,  having  desired  him  to  ask  the  negro  what 
o'clock  it  was,  the  minister  staid,  but  he  obtained  no  reply.  Droz 
then  observed,  that  the  negro  had  not  yet  learned  Spanish,  upon 
which  the  minister  repeated  the  question  in  French,  and  the  black 
immediately  answered  him.  At  this  new  prodigy  the  firmness  of 
the  minister  also  forsook  him,  and  he  retreated  precipitately,  de- 
claring that  it  must  be  the  work  of  a  supernatural  being. 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  385 

The  last  clock  which  I  shall  mention  at  present  is  one  which  I 
contrived  and  executed  some  five  or  six  years  ago.  It  shows  the 
hour  of  the  day,  the  mean  time  of  the  rising,  southing,  and  setting 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  the  moon's  age  and  phases  throughout  the 
year,  (by  having  an  horizon  which  expands  and  contracts  by  means 
of  the  complicated  wheel-work,)  the  day  of  the  month,  the  mean 
time  of  the  sun's  entering  into  the  zodiacal  signs,  sidereal  and  solar 
year,  and  consequently,  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  which  in 
the  clock  has  a  slow  backward  motion  through  the  ecliptic  in  25,920 
years  ;  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tides  are  also  exhibited  in  the  arc 
of  the  dial-plate ;  the  movement  contains  somewhere  about  fifty, 
six  wheels,  sixteen  pinions,  nine  levers  for  various  uses,  and  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  moveable  pieces  ;  it  goes  for  eight  days, 
has  what  is  called  a  dead  beat  scapement,  and  goes  while  wind- 
ing up. 

Horology  is  a  branch  of  knowledge  most  intimately  connected 
with  astronomy,  navigation,  and  chronology,  and  its  usefulness  is 
found  linked  more  or  less  with  all  of  the  most  important  branches 
of  science.  Without  a  proper  understanding  of  horology,  the  mar- 
iner could  not  with  safety  plough  the  ocean  ;  he  could  not  calculate 
with  accuracy  his  distance  from  land  ;  and  in  fine,  without  horolo- 
gy, history  would  appear  without  dates,  and  even  the  more  com- 
mon affairs  of  domestic  life  would  run  into  confusion.  The  clock 
of  early  times  was  of  very  rude  construction  ;  and  it  would  seem 
from  what  remains  of  their  history,  that  a  loss  or  gain  of  five,  ten, 
twenty,  or  more  minutes  per  day,  was  not  much  regarded  ;  and  if 
it  kept  within  these  wide  bounds,  the  horologe  was  looked  upon  as 
"  a  miracle  of  art."  But  now,  in  modern  times,  when  the  art  of 
horology  has  risen  to  such  perfection  that  in  astronomical  ^clocks, 
with  compensation  pendulums  of  right  principles,  a  gain  or  loss  of 
five  minutes  in  a  year  would  by  no  means  answer  the  present  ad- 
vanced state  of  the  sublime  science  of  astronomy,  neither  would 
it  in  this  state  much  further  the  art  of  navigation,  in  the  prediction 
of  a  ship's  way  on  the  ocean.  From  the  duplicate  of  an  official 
statement  now  lying  before  me,  it  is  stated  that  the  Lords  Com- 
missioners of  the  Admiralty,  having  advertised  a  premium  of  £300 
for  the  best  chronometer  which  should  be  kept  at  Greenwich  Ob- 
servatory for  trial  for  one  year,  thirty-six  were  forwarded  by  the 
principal  chronometer  makers  in  l*ondon,  and  were  kept  during 
the  year  1823.  It  was  announced  that  if  any  chronometer  varied 
six  seconds,  it  could  not  obtain  the  prize  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  chronometer  marked  816  gained  the  prize,  having  kept  time 
for  many  months  within  "  one  second  and  one  eleven  hundredth 
part  of  a  second  /"  This  is  certainly  the  best  chronometer  on 

27* 


386  ANECDOTES, 

record.  Such  perfection  was  never  before  attained,  and  it  justly 
excited  the  astonishment  of  all  astronomers,  and  of  the  Board  of 
Admiralty. 


Manufacture  of  Earthenware  and  Porcelain. 

"  Etruria !  next  beneath  thy  magic  hands 
Glides  the  quick  wheel,  the  plastic  clay  expands  : 
Nerved  with  fine  touch,  thy  fingers,  as  it  turns, 
Mark  the  nice  bounds  of  vases,  ewers,  and  urns ; 
Round  each  fair  form,  in  lines  immortal  trace 
Uncopied  beauty  and  ideal  grace."  DARWIJJ. 

The  business  of  creating  from  a  mass  of  clay  "  vases,  ewers, 
and  urns,"  which,  in  the  homely  language  of  the  potter,  is  termed 
throwing,  has  always  excited  admiration.  One  moment,  an  un- 
fashioned  lump  of  earth  is  cast  on  the  block ;  the  next,  it  is  seen 
starting  into  forms  of  elegance  and  beauty.  A  simple  wheel,  and 
hands  untutored  in  other  arts,  effect  this  wondrous  change.  The 
means  appear  to  be  scarcely  adequate  to  the  end  ;  and  thence  the 
poet,  with  seeming  truth,  asserts  that  "  magic  hands11  perform  this 
work  of  art. 

The  remotest  ages  of  antiquity  lay  claim  to  the  invention  of 
earthenware ; — probably  it  was  carried  to  a  higher  point  of  im- 
provement than  any  other  of  the  early  manufactures  of  the  world. 
It  could  originate  only  in  those  regions  which  produced  its  essential 
materials,  and  thus  we  find  no  vestiges  of  its  having  existed  in 
countries  where  clay  is  unknown.  In  America,  while  some  re- 
gions possess  curious  specimens  of  ancient  pottery,  others,  in 
which  the  raw  material  has  not  been  found,  present  no  such  an- 
tique remains.  The  natives  of  these  latter  countries  have  availed 
themselves  of  such  substitutes  as  nature  has  provided.  The  gourd, 
called  calabash,  which  they  ingeniously  carve  and  cut  into  various 
forms,  affords  them  as  abundant  a  supply  of  vessels  for  holding 
liquids  as  their  simple  modes  of  life  require. 

The  plastic  power  of  clay  was  early  discovered.  It  appears  to 
have  been  employed  in  the  most  ancient  times,  as  it  still  is  in 
Egypt,  to  receive  the  impression  of  a  seal,  the  affixing  of  which 
on  property  was  probably  considered,  even  at  that  period,  as  a 
legal  protection.  Job,  in  one  of  his  poetic  similes,  says,  (chap, 
xxxviii,  14,)  "  It  is  turned  as  clay  to  the  seal." 

Many  centuries  before  the  art  was  practised  in  Europe,  the 
Chinese  had  brought  it  very  nearly  to  the  degree  of  perfection 
which  their  porcelain  now  exhibits.  In  this  one  branch  of  art 
they  have  undisputed  possession  of  materials  of  the  most  perfect 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  387 

combination  of  colors,  of  unrivalled  brilliance,  but  of  "ideal  grace" 
not  one  particle. 

From  Asia  this  art  entered  Europe  through  Greece,  the  land 
of  "  creative  genius.11  The  Corinthian  potters  especially  displayed, 
in  their  designs  and  execution,  exquisite  taste  and  skill.  Their 
works  were  more  prized  than  diamond  or  ruby,  and  were  amongst 
the  most  valuable  decorations  in  the  dwellings  of  princes.  Greece, 
supplying  with  porcelain  Egypt,  the  mother  country  of  so  many 
other  arts,  at  length  taught  it  to  establish  its  own  pottery,  and, 
spreading  the  useful  art  far  and  wide,  to  become  itself  the  benefac- 
tor of  other  regions. 

A  Phcenician  colony,  it  is  supposed,  founded  the  ancient 
Etruria,  whence  modern  Europe  has  drawn  models  of  skill  and 
beauty. 

Though  conquerors  ought  seldom  to  be  regarded  as  benefactors, 
the  Romans  in  many  instances  were  such  to  the  nations  they  sub- 
dued.  Wherever  they  obtained  a  permanent  empire,  they  planted 
their  arts  and  manufactures.  Though  some  maintain  that  Phoe- 
nicia supplied  Britain  with  earthen  vessels  in  exchange  for  its 
metals,  there  are  so  many  vestiges  of  Roman  manufactures  as  to 
corroborate  the  belief  of  her  being  indebted  to  that  people  for  the 
art  of  the  potter.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Leeds  the  remembrance 
of  a  Roman  pottery  is  still  recorded  in  the  name  of  the  village 
which  rose  upon  its  site — Potter  Newton. 

Although  introduced  into  Britain  at  so  early  a  period,  the  pot- 
ter's art  long  remained  in  its  rudest  state.  The  coarse  red  ware 
only  was  made,  but  was  not  of  sufficient  beauty  or  utility  to  be 
received  as  a  substitute  for  utensils  and  vessels  of  wood  and  metal, 
as  earthenware,  in  its  improved  state,  has  since  been.  In  every 
dwelling,  even  the  humblest,  earthenware  and  china  are  now  es- 
sential, and  not  only  in  England,  but  in  all  the  civilized  regions 
of  the  world.  This  change  was  principally  effected  by  the  indus- 
try and  comprehensive  mind  of  one  individual — Josiah  Wedgwood, 
the  founder  of  modern  Etruria.  The  Staffordshire  potteries, 
which  in  his  day  consisted  of  a  few  thinly  peopled  villages,  now 
present  a  continued  chain  of  manufactories,  extending  for  miles, 
in  which  tens  of  thousands  of  people  are  constantly  employed 
and  supported. 

For  centuries  previous  to  the  time  of  which  we  are  speaking, 
the  manufacture  of  earthenware  had,  in  this  country,  remained 
unimproved ;  and  in  Europe,  generally,  it  had  been  almost  as 
stationary.  From  the  east,  the  wealthy  and  luxurious  of  the 
western  hemisphere  were  supplied  with  porcelain,  valued  on  ac- 
count of  its  rareness  rather  than  for  its  beauty ;  while  the  humbler 


388  ANECDOTES, 

ranks  of  society  sought  no  other  than  metal  or  wooden  domestic 
utensils,  unless  they  added  to  these  some  of  the  rude  works  of 
their  native  potters. 

At  length,  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  princes  and  nobles, 
as  if  ashamed  of  the  neglect  the  art  had  experienced  in  the  most 
civilized  portion  of  the  world,  founded  in  their  respective  countries 
porcelain  manufactories.  These  subsequently  became  of  con- 
siderable eminence.  The  Sevres,  Dresden,  and  Berlin  porcelain 
grew  in  time  to  be  the  admiration  of  Europe,  and  was  mingled 
with  the  works  of  China,  which  became  less  prized.  But  the 
benefit  conferred  by  these  royal  and  noble  establishments  was 
limited.  Wealth  was  expended  on  them ;  talents  were  devoted 
to  them  ;  but  their  works  never  circulated  throughout  all  ranks, 
nor  effected  any  general  change  in  domestic  life  :  they  have  been 
limited  to  the  use  only  of  the  noble  and  the  rich. 

These  manufactories  cannot  claim  the  merit  of  such  general 
utility  as  those  of  England,  conducted  by  a  different  class  of  men 
and  upon  different  principles.  Here,  unaided  by  the  hand  of 
power,  without  wealth,  and  sometimes  almost  without  education, 
men,  the  founders  of  British  manufactories,  have  often  started 
from  the  level  of  humble  life  into  prominent  and  commanding  situ- 
ations.  Dispensing  means  of  subsistence  and  opening  prospects 
of  improved  condition  to  thousands,  they  have  acquired  an  influ- 
ence in  their  day  which  nobles  might  covet.  Among  this  class  of 
benefactors  to  their  race,  the  late  Josiah  Wedgwood  stood  pre- 
eminent. His  early  education,  as  was  usual  in  his  sphere,  was 
very  limited.  Education  in  his  day  was  supposed  to  be  incom- 
patible with  the  habits  of  a  man  of  business.  The  disadvantages 
of  this  narrow  system  were  early  perceived  by  the  intelligent 
Wedgwood,  and  his  first  step  to  the  eminence  he  afterwards  at- 
tained was  the  education  of  himself.  Though  apprenticed  to  a 
potter,  he  found  leisure  for  acquisitions  in  literary  knowledge, 
which  subsequently  enabled  him  to  sustain  a  part  in  the  literary 
and  philosophical  society  of  his  time. 

He  had  no  wild  or  irrational  ambition  which  induced  him  to 
attempt  attainments  beyond  his  reach  :  this  would  have  ended  in 
disappointment  and  downfall.  His  dignified  view  was  fixed  to  the 
improvement  of  himself  and  his  condition  by  the  most  laudable 
means ;  and  the  result,  after  years  of  steady  application,  accom- 
panied with  great  toil  and  anxiety,  was  an  ample  and  distinguished 
success. 

About  thirty  years  before  he  commenced  the  foundation  of  his 
future  eminence,  an  accident  had  given  rise  to  improvement  in  the 
earthenwares  of  Staffordshire.  A  potter  from  Burslem,  (the  centre 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  389 

of  the  potteries,  and  the  birthplace  of  Mr.  Wedgwood,)  in  travel- 
ling  to  London  on  horseback,  was  detained  on  the  road  by  the 
inflamed  eyes  of  his  horse.     Seeing  the  hostler,  the  horse-doctor 
of  those  times,  burn  a  piece  of  flint  and  afterwards  reduce  it  to  a 
fine  white  powder,  applying  it  as  a  specific  for  the  diseasedeYgi 
a  notion  arose  in  the  mind  of  the  traveller  as  la  \^r^^^T^ 
combing  "'iiS  uuaiuijtui  \\-mw  puwuur  \\ufltne  clay  used  m  his 
craft,  so  as  to  effect  a  change  in  the  color  and  body  of  his  ware. 
The  experiment  succeeded,  and  this  was  the  origin  of  the  English 
white-ware.     It  will  not  be  foreign  to  our  subject  to  remark  here, 
how  every  trifling  circumstance  that  occurs  is  turned  to  account, 
when  the  mind  is  seriously  at  work  on  any  subject.     We  know 
that  the  falling  of  an  apple,  the  passing  of  the  sun's  rays  through 
a  vessel  of  water,  the  swinging  of  a  suspended  lamp,  casualties 
apparently  trifling,  were  fraught  with  important  discoveries,  be- 
cause observed  by  men  deeply  engaged  in  scientific  investigations. 
We  are  not  presuming  to  place  a  simple  potter  on  a  footing 
with  Newton  or  Galileo — men  of  mighty  powers ;  but  we  claim 
for  him  a  point  of  resemblance,  because  like  them  he  pursued  his 
observations  with  investigation  and  experiment,  so  well  directed 
as  to  ensure  improvement  and  success.     This  man,  whose  name 
was  Ashbury,  also  brought  to  his  manufactory  the  superior  clays 
of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall ;  and  as  the  potters  wheel  had  been 
somewhat  improved  by  a  person  named  Alsager,  we  may  consider 
that,  though  still  vast  and  unoccupied,  the  field  of  improvement 
was  discovered  a  short  time  before  Mr.  Wedgwood  entered  it. 
We  must  here  do  honor  to  the  French  philosopher  and  naturalist, 
Reaumur,  who  at  a  rather  earlier  period  had  been  almost  the  first 
in  forming  the  connection  between  science  and  the  arts  of  life,  from 
that  time  indissoluble,  and  ever  since  producing  improvement  to 
which  no  termination  can  be  foreseen.     Science  hitherto  had  been 
regarded  as  an  abstract  pursuit — leading  to  little  practical  good, 
if  not  unfitting  those  engaged  in  it  for  the  pursuits  of  life.     The 
chemical  examination  which  Reaumur  made  on  oriental  china, 
anticipated  what  in  time  the  common  experiments  of  the  manu- 
facturer might  have  effected,  though  not  with  equal  certainty  or 
rapidity.     Upon  those  experiments  the  Royal  French  manufactory 
of  Sevres  was  founded.     This  instance  of  the  aid  which  science 
yielded  to  a  manufacture  similar  to  his  own,  was  not  likely  to  be 
unheeded  by  Mr.  Wedgwood,  and,  accordingly,  we  find  him  effect- 
ing, in  England,  that  union  between  science  and  his  art,  which 
Reaumur  had  done  in  France.     As  soon  as  his  means  permitted 
him  to  deviate  without  pecuniary  inconvenience  from  the  beaten 
path,  he  appears  to  have  employed  men  of  science  to  aid  him  in 


390  ANECDOTES, 

his  extended  views.  One  amiable  man,  Mr.  Chisholm,  a  superior 
chemist  of  the  time,  devoted  his  whole  life  to  this  business.  Under 
the  direction  of  the  intelligence  and  indefatigable  spirit  of  Mr. 
Wedgwood,  he  proceeded  day  by  day,  from  experiment  to  experi- 
n^-,  until  most  of  the  principal  objects  in  view  were  attained. 

Varieties  ol  c'n-j  were  sought  for,  and  the  compnrativp.  value 
ot  their  properties  for  trie  riiuhuiucture  u,  H~~^^,  .» ,,.,  t.^-»vtAip.-cd 
together  with  the  true  proportion  of  calcined  flint  with  which  each 
variety  would  unite,  and  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  each  could 
be  submitted.  The  glaze  also,  it  has  been  said,  gave  rise  to  a 
most  anxious  and  assiduous  investigation  on  the  part  of  these  in- 
defatigable laborers,  which  ended  without  their  attaining  the  object 
they  so  earnestly  desired.  The  rude  brown  ware  before  men- 
tioned had  been  always  glazed  with  fused  salt,  by  a  process  un- 
certain in  its  results,  and  one  which,  producing  noxious  fumes, 
rendered  an  earthenware  manufactory  a  nuisance  to  its  neighbor- 
hood. The  improvement  in  this  department  of  the  manufacture 
led  to  the  substitution  of  white  lead  for  salt ;  but  although  the  air 
on  glazing  days  was  no  longer  odious  to  breathe,  the  substitute 
acted  as  a  powerful  poison  on  those  employed  in  this  branch  of 
the  business.  Every  precaution  which  his  humanity  could  sug- 
gest Mr.  Wedgwood  adopted,  to  prevent  the  injurious  influence 
of  the  lead  on  his  work-people  :  but  the  poison  was  too  subtle ;  it 
was  imbibed  through  the  pores  as  well  as  inhaled ;  and  paralysis 
often  terminated  the  lives  -of  those  employed  in  glazing,  or  ren- 
dered a  protracted  existence  an  evil  to  them.  Mr.  Wedgwood^s 
humane  endeavors  to  discover  another  substitute  for  the  lead  were 
never  realized,  although  his  hopes  often  represented  to  him  the 
possibility  of  its  being  effected.  The  evil  still  exists. 

The  forms  and  colors  were  no  less  objects  of  his  attention  than 
the  body  of  his  manufacture.  Oxides  of  metals,  particularly  those 
of  iron,  gave  him  an  endless  variety  of  colors,  and  for  his  forms 
and  ornaments  he  took  models  from  the  best  standards  of  grace 
and  beauty  which  the  ancient  world  afforded  him.  He  also  em- 
ployed both  English  and  foreign  artists  of  merit  in  modelling  and 
designing.  The  early  talent  of  Flaxman,  and  the  skilful  pencil 
of  Webber,  were  engaged  in  his  service  ;  of  which  there  are  evi- 
dences in  the  perfect  imitation  of  the  Barbarini  vase  he  has  left 
behind  him,  and  in  the  classic  designs  which  decorate  the  beautiful 
imitation  of  jasper  which  he  invented.  Thus  his  manufactory 
comprehended  every  thing  his  art  could  attain ;  and  taste,  conve- 
nience, and  comfort  could  draw  thence  ample  gratification.  Ex- 
cellence was  his  aim — whether  in  the  common  articles  of  use,  or 
in  the  choicer  productions  of  his  taste ;  and  so  ambitious  was  he 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  391 

to  maintain  the  reputation  of  his  manufacture,  that  he  sacrificed 
every  article  which  came  from  the  oven  in  an  imperfect  state. 

Such  was  the  eminence  Wedgwood  reached  as  a  manufacturer, 
that  he  carried  every  thing  before  him.  His  ware  displaced 
foreign  china  in  his  own  country,  and  spread  itself  over  every  part 
of  Europe — not  only  ornamenting  the  palace,  but  filling  the  cot- 
tage with  means  of  comfort  and  cleanliness.  No  ware  could  be 
sold  that  had  not  his  name  stamped  on  each  article.  Wedgwood 
became  a  generic  term — the  question  being  also  asked  on  the 
continent,  "  Have  you  any  Wedgwood?"  He  secured  this  pre- 
eminence by  the  excellence  of  his  productions,  and  not  by  exclu- 
sive advantages.  He  always  steadily  refused  to  obtain  patents 
for  his  inventions,  saying,  "  The  world  is  wide  enough  for  us  all." 


Inventors  and  Poets. 

On  reflection  it  will  be  found  that  mechanical  invention,  differs 
nothing  from  that  which  gives  value  to  those  pursuits  considered 
to  be  more  mental  and  refined.  Homer  and  his  Iliad,  Virgil  and  his 
jEneid,  Milton  and  his  Paradise  Lost,  were  minds  and  productions 
of  the  same  exquisite  fibre  and  tention,  with  Savary  and  Watt,  with 
their  engines,  Huygens  with  his  watch,  Arkwright  with  his  spin- 
ning frame,  Meikle  with  his  threshing  machine,  Bramah  with  his 
hydraulic  press.  In  fact,  observation  frequently  shows,  that  the 
power  of  constructing  poetry  and  machines  are  united  in  the  same 
individual.  Hooke  made  verses  as  well  as  machines,  and  could 
as  well  have  written  a  sonnet  to  his  "  mistress'  eyebrow"  as  have 
presented  his  thirty-seven  projects  for  flying.  Samuel  Moreland 
indited  love  songs,  and  sang  them  to  his  sweetheart.  When  total 
blindness  had  fallen  on  the  jovial  old  man,  he  buried  the  effusions 
of  his  youth,  considering  them  to  be  "gay  deceits,"  and  betook 
himself  in  his  ninetieth  year  to  the  composition  of  psalms.  Ark- 
wright was  famed  among  his  customers  for  a  light  hand  and  an 
exquisite  edge,  and  for  verses  which  cut  as  keen  as  his  razors. 
Watt  in  his  youth  was  a  rhymester,  and  few  men  in  his  generation 
read  more  fairy  tales  and  poetry, — even  in  the  meridian  of  his  life,  in 
the  busiest  period  of  his  employment,  the  greater  portion  of  his 
time  was  devoted  to  indulgence  in  this  mental  luxury.  Few  who 
knew  the  excellent  Rennie,  near  the  close  of  his  life,  would  have 
dreamed  of  finding  under  the  exterior  of  this  inflexible  man  of  bu- 
siness, an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  poetry  and  music.  The  venera- 
ble Telford,  when  building  rough  stone  walls  as  a  journeyman 


392  ANECDOTES, 

mason,  was  an  esteemed  contributor  to  the  poetical  corner  of  the 
Scots  Magazine.  The  inventor  of  the  celebrated  congreve  rocket 
had  previously  "  let  off"  many  poetical  squibs.  Cartwright  early 
distinguished  himself  for  his  poetical  composition ;  but  the  fine 
taste  and  exalted  feeling  which  pervade  them,  must  yield  to  the 
exquisite  invention  and  extensive  usefulness  of  his  power-loom. 

Poets,  as  well  as  mechanics,  differ  in  the  manner  in  which  they 
exhibit  their  conceptions.  One  excels  in  loftiness  of  thought, 
another  in  delicacy  of  perception ;  a  third  pleases  by  his  harmoni- 
ous numbers,  and  a  fourth,  is  esteemed  for  the  useful  tendency  of 
his  writings.  Some  mechanics  delight  in  clock-work, — others  in 
steam  engines — the  machines  of  others  are  polished  even  to  a  bolt 
head — and  a  ponderous  mass  whose  jerking  motion  is  the  nuisance 
of  a  district,  constructed  by  one  whose  ear  is  more  refined  than 
his  rival  manufacturers,  moves  with  all  the  softness  of  a  watch ;  and 
another  applies  the  principles  of  a  toy  to  a  machine  for  abridging 
labor.  There  are  rhymesters  who  will  spin  a  fine  thought  through 
an  infinity  of  words  ;  there  are  also  artist  wire-drawers,  who,  by 
great  skill,  will  draw  an  ounce  or  two  of  gold  into  a  thread  which 
will  encircle  the  world.  Your  sounding,  flashy,  sparkling  authors 
of  a  thousand  brilliant  nothings,  are  a  sort  of  kaleidescope  artists, 
whose  most  original,  regular,  and  harmonious  combinations,  are 
produced  by  a  thread  of  rag,  a  pin's  head,  a  leaf,  a  bead,  or  a  bit 
of  crystal. 


Public  Works  of  the  United  States. 

"  At  the  first  view,  one  is  struck  with  the  temporary  and  appa- 
rently unfinished  state  of  many  of  the  American  works,  and  is 
very  apt,  before  inquiring  into  the  subject,  to  impute  to  want  of 
ability  what  turns  out,  on  investigation,  to  be  a  judicious  and  in- 
genious arrangement  to  suit  the  circumstances  of  a  new  country, 
of  which  the  climate  is  severe, — a  country  where  stone  is  scarce 
and  wood  is  plentiful,  and  where  manual  labor  is  very  expensive. 
It  is  vain  to  look  to  the  American  works  for  the  finish  that  charac- 
terizes those  of  Prance,  or  the  stability  for  which  those  of  Britain 
are  famed.  Undressed  slopes  of  cuttings  and  embankments, 
roughly  built  rubble  arches,  stone  parapet-walls  coped  with  timber, 
and  canal-locks  wholly  constructed  of  that  material,  everywhere 
offend  the  eye  accustomed  to  view  European  workmanship.  But 
it  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  arises  from  want  of  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  engineering,  or  of  skill  to  do  them  justice  in 
the  execution.  The  use  of  wood,  for  example,  which  may  be  con- 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  393 

sidered  by  many  as  wholly  inapplicable  to  the  construction  of 
canal-locks,  where  it  must  not  only  encounter  the  tear  and  wear 
occasioned  by  the  lockage  of  vessels,  but  must  be  subject  to  the 
destructive  consequences  of  alternate  immersion  in  water  and 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  is  yet  the  result  of  deliberate  judg- 
ment. The  Americans  have,  in  many  cases,  been  induced  to  use 
the  material  of  the  country,  ill  adapted  though  it  be  in  some  re- 
spects to  the  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied,  in  order  to  meet  the 
wants  of  a  rising  community,  by  speedily  and  perhaps  superficially 
completing  a  work  of  importance,  which  would  otherwise  be  de- 
layed, from  a  want  of  the  means  to  execute  it  in  a  more  substan- 
tial manner ;  and  although  the  works  are  wanting  in  finish,  and 
even  in  solidity,  they  do  not  fail  for  many  years  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  were  constructed,  as  efficiently  as  works  of  a 
more  lasting  description. 

"  When  the  wooden  locks  on  any  of  the  canals  begin  to  show 
symptoms  of  decay,  stone  structures  are  generally  substituted, 
and  materials  suitable  for  their  erection  are  with  ease  and  expedi- 
tion conveyed  from  the  part  of  the  country  where  they  are  most 
abundant,  by  means  of  the  canal  itself  to  which  they  are  to  be 
applied ;  and  thus  the  less  substantial  work  actually  becomes  the 
means  of  facilitating  its  own  improvement,  by  affording  a  more 
easy,  cheap,  and  speedy  transport  of  those  durable  and  expensive 
materials,  without  the  use  of  which,  perfection  is  unattainable. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  advantages  of  constructing  the 
locks  of  canals,  in  new  countries  such  as  America,  of  wood,  un- 
questionably is,  that  in  proportion  as  improvement  advances  and 
greater  dimensions  or  other  changes  are  required,  they  can  be  in- 
troduced at  little  cost,  and  without  the  mortification  of  destroying 
expensive  and  substantial  works  of  masonry.  Some  of  the  locks 
on  the  great  Erie  canal  are  formed  of  stone,  but  had  they  all  been 
made  of  wood,  it  would,  in  all  probability,  have  been  converted 
into  a  ship-canal  long  ago. 

"  But  the  locks  are  not  the  only  parts  of  the  American  canals 
in  which  wood  is  used.  Aqueducts  over  ravines  or  rivers  are 
generally  formed  of  large  wooden  troughs  resting  on  stone  pillars, 
and  even  more  temporary  expedients  have  been  chosen,  the  inge- 
nuity of  which  can  hardly  fail  to  please  those  who  view  them  as 
the  means  of  carrying  on  improvements,  which,  but  for  such  con- 
trivances, might  be  stopped  by  the  want  of  funds  necessary  to 
complete  them. 

"  Mr.  M'Taggart,  the  resident  engineer  for  the  Rideau  canal  in 
Canada,  gave  a  good  example  of  the  extraordinary  expedients  often 
resorted  to,  by  suggesting  a  very  novel  scheme  for  carrying  that 

28 


394  ANECDOTES, 

work  across  a  thickly  wooded  ravine  situate  in  a  part  of  the  coun. 
try  where  materials  for  forming  an  embankment,  'or  stone  for 
building  the  piers  of  an  aqueduct,  could  not  be  obtained  but  at  a 
great  expense.  The  plan  consisted  of  cutting  across  the  large 
trees  in  the  line  of  the  works,  at  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the 
canal,  so  as  to  render  them  fit  for  supporting  a  platform  on  their 
trunks,  and  on  this  platform  the  trough  containing  the  water  of  the 
canal  was  intended  to  rest.  I  am  not  aware  whether  this  plan  was 
carried  into  effect,  but  it  is  not  more  extraordinary  than  many  of 
the  schemes  to  which  the  Americans  have  resorted  in  constructing 
their  public  works ;  and  the  great  traffic  sustained  by  many  of 
them,  notwithstanding  the  temporary  and  hurried  manner  in  which 
they  are  finished,  is  truly  wonderful." 


Manufactory  of  the  Gobelins. 

Among  the  curiosities  of  Paris,  is  a  manufacture  of  tapestry, 
which  is  sustained  as  a  sort  of  plaything  by  the  nation.  It  is 
called  the  manufactory  of  the  Gobelins,  from  the  name  of  the  dyers 
who  commenced  the  works  in  ancient  times,  and  established  here 
their  dye-house  for  coloring  their  worsted  yarns,  with  which  the 
pieces  of  tapestry  were  wrought.  The  most  beautiful  paintings  are 
placed  as  patterns  by  the  tapestry  weavers,  who  rival  the  Chinese 
in  fidelity  and  exactnes  of  imitation.  An  artist  of  spirit  who  may 
have  the  genius  to  design  and  finish  a  piece  of  painting  upon  can- 
vass,  could  hardly  be  brought  to  spend  one  and  often  two  years,  in 
copying  the  same  picture  by  inserting  small  bits  of  colored  worsted, 
particle  by  particle,  by  means  of  the  slow  and  tedious  labors  of  the 
loom.  Tapestry  weaving  must  remain  an  imitative  art  instead  of 
one  that  can  confer  honor  on  an  artist  for  any  originality,  or  bold 
touches  of  genius  in  the  art  of  designing.  Even  at  the  moderate 
wages  paid  the  workmen  here,  the  cost  of  a  single  sheet  of  tapestry 
frequently  exceeds  $  1400,  and  several  years  are  required  to  com. 
plete  it.  So  bright,  vivid,  and  well  blended  are  the  colors  of  the 
worsted  thread,  that  few  persons  at  the  distance  of  three  or  four 
yards  would  suppose  them  to  be  the  product  of  the  loom.  The 
frame  that  contains  the  extended  threads  of  the  warp,  is  placed  in 
a  perpendicular  position,  and  the  workman  is  seated  behind  the 
frame ;  carefully  arranged  by  his  side,  are  hundreds  of  little  bobbins 
of  worsted,  of  every  imaginable  color,  the  shade  of  which  are  so 
well  blended  and  approximated  to  each  other,  that  one  can  hardly 
tell  where  one  terminates  or  another  begins. — These  bobbins  he 
skilfully  selects  and  holds  near  the  picture  which  he  is  copying, 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  395 

to  compare  the  tints.  Thread  by  thread  he  proceeds,  and  after 
satisfying  himself  in  the  selection  of  the  color,  he  inserts  a  piece  of 
worsted  yarn,  perhaps  in  some  spots  not  longer  than  one  eighth  of  an 
inch,  using  the  bobbin  itself  instead  of  a  shuttle,  to  pass  the  worsted 
filling  in  and  out  between  the  threads  of  the  warp.  After  effecting 
this  operation,  he  breaks  off  the  yarn  and  crowds  it  in  between  the 
thread  and  the.  warp,  by  the  teeth  of  a  comb ;  he  then  seeks  again 
for  another  tint  to  correspond  with  the  picture  before  him.  The 
warp  or  chain  is  composed  of  white  woollen  threads,  and  the  weft, 
of  all  shades  of  colors  that  are  prepared  on  the  easel  of  the  painter. 
The  threads  of  the  warp  are  not  opened  by  means  of  treadles,  or 
harness  to  allow  the  filling  to  be  shot  between  them,  as  in  common 
weaving ;  nor  is  a  slaie  or  reed  employed  to  press  down  or  close 
the  threads  of  the  weft,  after  it  is  drawn  in  among  the  threads  of 
the  warp ;  but  the  artist  uses  for  this  purpose  only  a  sort  of  comb, 
the  teeth  of  which,  after  every  operation  of  inserting  a  little  piece 
of  yarn,  are  employed  to  press  it  down  and  close  it  together  in  the 
work.  The  figure  of  an  extended  arm,  or  of  a  head,  is  wrought  by 
the  artist  before  he  completes  the  filling,  composing  the  back-ground 
around  it.  The  form  of  a  beautiful  female  may  thus  appear  to  be 
starting  up  in  glowing  colors,  amid  the  threads  spread  like  a  cob- 
web  over  a  square  frame.  A  hand  when  thus. woven  in  advance  of 
the  texture  around  it,  seems  as  if  formed  of  flesh  and  blood,  and  thrust 
amid  the  cords  of  a  harp  to  sweep  the  sounding  strings.  This 
costly  tapestry  resembles  the  fine  worsted  work,  executed  in  single 
stitch,  by  the  fair  hands  of  the  ladies  in  their  hours  of  domestic  re- 
laxation. It  is  so  delicately  composed  that  the  outlines  of  the  figure 
show  no  angular  uneven  edges ;  the  surface  of  the  tapestry  being 
nearly  as  smooth  and  close  as  that  of  the  oil  painting  from  which 
it  is  copied.  This  establishment  is  supported  at  the  national 
charge,  the  sheets  of  tapestry  are  used  as  ornaments  of  the  royal 
palaces,  and  sometimes  as  royal  gifts. 


March  of  Umbrellas. 

The  following  anecdote  from  a  Scotch  paper  is  well  worth  pre- 
serving. "  When  umbrellas  marched  first  into  this  quarter,  (Blair- 
gorie,)  they  were  sported  only  by  the  minister  and  the  laird,  and 
were  looked  upon  by  the  common  class  of  people  as  perfect  phe- 
nomena. One  day  Daniel  M — n  went  to  Colonel  McPherson,  at 
Blairgorie  House :  when  about  to  return,  it  came  on  a  shower,  and 
the  colonel  politely  offered  him  the  loan  of  an  umbrella,  which  was 
politely  and  proudly  accepted  ;  and  Daniel,  with  his  head  two  or 


396  ANECDOTES, 

three  inches  higher  than  usual,  marched  off.  Not  long  after  he 
had  left,  however,  to  the  colonel's  surprise,  he  sees  Daniel  posting 
towards  him  with  all  possible  haste,  still  overtopped  by  his  cotton 
canopy,  (silk  umbrellas  were  out  of  the  question  in  those  days,) 
which  he  held  out  saluting  him  with,  "  Hae,  hae,  Kurnel !  this  'II 
never  do  ;  there  Js  no  a  door  in  a?  my  house  that  'II  iak"1  it  in — my 
verm  barn-door  wmna  tak"1  it  in." 


The  French  Machine  Maker. 

It  is  not  long  ago  that  I  went  to  visit  an  interesting  old  man, 
who  lives  by  the  side  of  the  Rhone',  at  a  short  distance  from  Lyons. 
Have  you  ever  heard  of  the  Jacquard  machine,  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  of  modern  discoveries,  by  which  the  most  complicated 
patterns  can  be  woven  with  the  same  ease  as  the  plainest ;  a  ma- 
chine which  enables  an  ordinary  weaver  to  produce  all  those  many- 
colored  oriental  shawls,  fashionable  silks,  and  variegated  ribbands, 
which  formerly  required  a  dexterity  possessed  only  by  a  very  few, 
and  a  continuous  labor  that  made  them  costly  and  inaccessible  to 
any  but  the  rich  ?  Now-a-days  silk-stuffs,  exquisitely  tasteful  and 
beautiful,  can  be  purchased  for  a  small  sum  of  money,  and  are 
worn  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  classes  whose  garments 
were  formerly  made  of  coarse  wool  or  hemp.  The  old  man  I 
speak  of  was  Jacquard,  and  he  was  one  of  the  great  causes  of  this 
diffusion  of  enjoyment.  As  I  happened  to  be  near  the  place  of 
his  abode,  I  determined  to  visit  him,  and  did  so,  accompanied  by 
several  friends. 

It  was  a  sunshiny  day,  I  remember,  and  we  had  a  delightful 
walk  along  the  margin  of  the  rapid  Rhone,  a  river  renowned  in 
history,  and  whose  banks  are  still  crowded  with  the  ruins  of  past 
time,  calling  to  mind  the  days  when  every  feudal  chief  was  obliged 
to  shut  himself  up  in  high  and  embattled  towers,  built  often  upon 
dangerous  crags,  in  order  to  be  secure  from  the  attacks  of  some 
neighboring  lord.  The  petty  sovereigns  and  the  petty  feuds  have 
passed  away  together.  Every  thing  now  bears  the  face  of  security, 
of  industry,  of  peace.  Talking  of  the  delightful  contrast,  and 
hoping  that  nations  would  one  day  harmonize,  as  the  once  con- 
tending peasantry  of  the  Rhone  now  harmonize,  wo  reached  old 
Jacquard 's  abode. 

He  welcomed  us  with  heartiness.  "  But  come  forth  into  my 
vineyard,"  he  said ;  "  let  us  get  among  the  grapes  and  the  sun-, 
shine  :"  so  he  led  the  way  with  a  tottering  step.  "  Hither,  hither," 
he  called  out:  "come  with  me  to  to  the  arbor."  We  followed 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  397 

him  there.  "  Let  me  sit  in  the  centre,  and  let  me  tell  you  how 
glad  I  am  to  see  you,  my  friends  !"  We  sat  down  around  him  ; 
the  clematis  was  blended  with  the  vine,  and  together  they  made 
the  roof  and  the  walls  of  the  quiet  retreat,  where  every  day  the 
venerable  old  man  was  used  to  sit,  and  to  recall  the  events  of  his 
much  checkered  life.  Some  of  those  events  you  shall  hear  as  he 
himself  related  them,  and  you  will  see  what  perseverance— -virtuous 
perseverance — is,  and  what  virtuous  perseverance  can  do. 

I  told  Jacquard  that  I  was  an  Englishman,  and  as  he  had  been 
one  of  the  benefactors  of  my  country,  I  was  come  to  thank  him. 
"  How  proud  I  am,"  said  he,  "to  be  visited  by  an  Englishman ! 
If  I  have  ever  done  any  good,  I  owe  the  very  first  suggestion  to 
England.  It  was  an  English  newspaper  that  led  me  to  occupy  my 
thoughts  with  mechanical  improvements.  But  for  that,  perhaps,  I 
should  still  have  been  a  poor  strawhat  maker  in  an  obscure  street 
at  Lyons,  instead  of  the  happy  man  you  see  me,  honored  by  my 
native  town,  recompensed  by  the  government  (pointing  to  the  red 
ribband  which  he  wore  at  his  button-hole,)  and  pensioned  by  the 
state.11  "  But  how,11  I  inquired,  "  did  you  owe  to  England  your 
first  success  ?"  "  It  was,11  he  answered,  "  during  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  and  we  were  accustomed  to  meet,  in  order  to  talk  politics, 
at  a  friend's  house  on  the  quay.  It  was  there  a  translated  extract 
from  an  English  newspaper  met  my  eye,  stating  that  a  premium 
was  offered  by  a  society  in  London  to  any  one  who  would  apply  ma- 
chinery to  the  manufacture  of  nets.  I  meditated  long  upon  the  matter, 
and,  after  many  attempts,  I  made  a  machine  by  which  nets  could 
be  produced.  It  was  the  first  of  my  mechanical  experiments,  and 
I  will  tell  you,  if  you  have  the  patience  and  the  desire  to  hear  me, 
how  that  trifling  affair  was  the  beginning  of  my  good  fortune  and 
my  fame.11  Nothing,  we  assured  him,  could  gratify  us  more  than 
to  continue  his  history.  "  Well,  then,11  said  he,  "  I  contrived  a 
machine  and  made  a  net.  by  it,  and  thought  no  more  of  the  matter. 
I  carried  the  net  about  in  my  pocket,  and  one  day,  meeting  with  a 
friend  who  had  heard  the  paragraph  of  the  English  paper  read,  I 
threw  it  to  him,  saying,  "  There  is  the  difficulty  got  over,  and  the 
net  made  I11  And  the  matter  passed  out  of  my  mind.  I  had  per- 
severed until  I  had  succeeded,  and  there  was  an  end  of  it.  Some 
time  afterwards,  I  was  much  surprised  at  getting  an  order  from  the 
Prefect  to  appear  at  the  prefectal  palace.  I  went,  and  the  Prefect 
said  he  had  only  lately  heard  of  my  proficiency  in  the  mechanical 
arts.  It  was  a  great  mystery  to  me  ;  I  really  did  not  comprehend 
his  meaning,  and  I  stammered  out  a  sort  of  an  apology  for  not  un- 
derstanding him.  My  net  and  the  machine  that  made  it  had  gone 
quite  out  of  my  head.  The  Prefect  expressed  surprise  that  I  should 

28* 


398  ANECDOTES, 

deny  my  own  abilities,  but  at  last  he  produced  the  very  net  that  I 
had  made,  and  which  to  me  had  seemed  a  very  trifling  affair, 'as 
it  was  in  reality.  '  I  have  orders  from  the  Emperor  to  send  the 
machine  to  Paris,1  said  the  Prefect.  '  From  the  Emperor  !  That's 
strange  indeed  ;  but  you  must  give  me  time  to  make  it.'  So  I  set 
about  it,  and  in  a  few  weeks  I  completed  it,  and  trudged  away  with 
my  machine,  and  a  half- manufactured  net  in  it,  to  the  Prefect.  He 
was  very  impatient  to  see  it  work,  so  I  bade  him  count  the  number 
of  loops,  and  then  strike  the  bar  with  his  foot ;  he  did  so,  and 
another  loop  was  added  to  the  number.  Great  was  the  delight 
that  he  expressed,  and  he  told  me  that  no  doubt  I  should  hear  from 
him  again.  I  heard  from  him  again,  in  truth,  very  soon,  and  in  a 
way  that  perplexed  me  not  a  little ;  for  his  first  greeting  was, 
'  You  must  go  to  Paris,  M.  Jacquard,  by  his  majesty's  orders.* 
'  To  Paris,  sir !  how  can  that  be  ?  What  have  I  done  1  How  can 
I  leave  my  affairs  here  ?'  '  Not  only  must  you  go  to  Paris,  but 
you  must  go  to-day — you  must  go  immediately  !'  These  were  not 
times  in  which  there  was  any  resisting  the  orders  of  authority ;  so 

I  said,  '  If  it  must  be  so,  it  must ;  I  will  go  home  and  pack  up  my 
baggage,  and  I  shall  be  ready  to  obey  your  commands.'     '  No  ! 
M.  Jacquard  !'  said  the  Prefect,  'you  cannot  go  home  ;  a  carriage 
is  waiting  to  take  you  to  Paris.'    '  Not  go  home  !  Not  say  adieu  to 
my  wife  !  Not  make  up  my  luggage  for  a  journey  of  150  leagues  !* 

I 1  have  orders,'  said  the  Prefect,  'to  despatch  you  instantly;  you 
may  send  to  your  wife ;  you  may  tell  her  to  give  to  my  messenger 
any  thing  you  desire  to  take — I  will  provide  you  with  money  ;  but 
there  must  be  no  delay.'     There  was  no  arguing  about  the  matter, 
so  I  sent  to  my  wife,  got  a  small  bundle  of  clothes,  jumped  into  the 
carriage,  and  away  \  away  !  we  were  off,  full  gallop  towards  Paris ! 
When  we  reached  the  first  station,  I  opened  the  door,  and  I  found 
myself  stopped  by  a  gendarme,  who  said  to  me,  '  Sir,  if  you  please, 
you  are  not  to  go  out  of  my  sight.'     I  found  I  was  a  prisoner,  and 
escorted  by  military  force  to  the  capital ;  things  were  so  managed 
at  that  time ;  there  was,  however,  no  use  in  complaining ;  so  I 
made  the  best  of  my  fate,  and  submitted  in  good  humor. 

"  I  reached  Paris  for  the  first  time  in  my  life,  and  strange  was 
my  introduction  there.  I  was  escorted  to  the  Conservatory  ;  and 
whom  should  I  see  there  but  Napoleon  and  Carnot !  Carnot  said 
to  me  suddenly,  '  Are  you  the  man  that  can  do  what  Almighty  God 
cannot  do  ? — tie  a  knot  in  a  stretched  string  ?'  I  was  overwhelmed 
with  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  and  the  abruptness  of  his  minis- 
ter, and  knew  not  what  to  answer.  But  Napoleon  spoke  very 
condescendingly  to  me  about  my  discovery ;  told  me  he  would  pro- 
tect  me,  and  urged  me  to  go  on  with  my  mechanical  pursuits.  Ma- 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  399 

terials  were  brought  me,  and  I  was  directed  to  make  a  net-produc- 
ing machine  in  the  Conservatory,  which  I  did.  At  that  time  a 
superb  shawi  was  being  woven  for  the  Empress  Josephine,  and  for 
its  production  they  were  employing  a  very  costly  and  complicated 
loom  ;  a  loom  upon  which  more  than  twenty  thousand  francs  had 
been  expended.  It  appeared  to  me  that  the  same  effect  might  be 
produced  by  a  less  perplexing  machinery,  and  I  recollected  having 
seen  a  model  by  Vaucauson,  in  which  I  thought  a  principle  was 
developed  which  I  could  apply  to  the  desired  purpose.  Long 
thought  and  perseverance  enabled  me  to  produce  the  mechanism 
that  bears  my  name.  When  I  had  succeeded,  the  Emperor  con- 
ferred  this  decoration  upon  me,  and  granted  me  a  pension  of  a 
thousand  crowns.  But  on  returning  to  Lyons,  far  different  was 
my  destiny.  When  I  endeavored  to  introduce  my  machine,  the 
workmen  broke  out  into  open  revolt.  I  was  every  where  de- 
nounced as  the  enemy  of  the  people,  as  the  man  who  had  been 
scheming  the  destruction  of  their  trade,  and  the  starvation  of  them- 
selves and  their  families.  Three  plots  were  laid  to  assassinate  me, 
and  twice  I  had  great  difficulty  in  escaping  with  my  life.  So  strong 
was  the  tide  of  prejudice  and  indignation,  that  my  machine  was 
ordered  to  be  openly  destroyed  by  the  public  authorities.  It  was 
broken  to  pieces  in  the  great  square  of  the  city.  The  iron  was 
sold  for  old  iron,  the  wood  for  fire-wood.  Think  what  a  shipwreck 
of  all  my  hopes  ! 

"  I  did  not  quite  lose  courage.  The  successful  competition  of 
foreigners,  and  the  consequent  decline  of  trade  in  France,  led  some 
intelligent  manufacturers,  a  few  years  after,  to  think  of  the  man 
whose  discovery  might  perhaps  bring  some  relief  to  that  depression 
under  which  they  labored.  They  found  strength  of  mind  to  make 
another  experiment.  It  succeeded.  Silks  of  greater  beauty  were 
introduced,  at  a  lower  cost.  There  was  a  dawn  of  prosperity,  and 
ij  has  continued  to  shine.  Of  that  machine  which  had  been  de- 
voted to  ignominy  and  destruction,  I  have  now  seen  thousands  in- 
troduced, and  there  is  now  scarcely  any  man  so  blind  or  so  ignorant 
as  not  to  acknowledge  that  its  introduction  has  been  a  great  bless- 
ing. It  has  given  .labor  to  tens  of  thousands,  and  I  have  had  a 
complete  recompense  for  all  I  have  gone  through." 

We  talked  of  these  and  other  matters  till  the  shades  of  coming 
twilight  'bade  us  depart.  The  happy  old  man  is  still  in  my  me- 
mory  ;  a  striking  instance  of  virtuous  perseverance,  crowned  with 
fit  reward. 


400  ANECDOTES, 

Manufacturing  Establishments. 

We  have  seen  that  the  application  of  the  Division  of  Labor  tends 
to  produce  cheaper  articles ;  that  it  thus  increases  the  demand  ; 
and  gradually,  by  the  effect  of  competition,  or  by  the  hope  of 
increased  gain,  that  it  causes  large  capitals  to  be  embarked  in 
extensive  factories.  Let  us  now  examine  the  influence  of  this 
accumulation  of  capital  directed  to  one  object.  In  the  first  place, 
it  enables  the  most  important  principle  on  which  the  advantages 
of  the  division  of  labor  depends,  to  be  carried  almost  to  its  extreme 
limits :  not  merely  is  the  precise  amount  of  skill  purchased  which 
is  necessary  for  the  execution  of  each  process,  but  throughout  every 
stage — from  that  in  which  the  raw  material  is  procured,  to  that 
by  which  the  finished  produce  is  conveyed  into  the  hands  of  the 
consumer — --the  same  economy  of  skill  prevails.  The  quantity  of 
work  produced  by  a  given  number  of  people  is  greatly  augmented 
by  such  an  extended  arrangement ;  and  the  result  is  necessarily  a 
great  reduction  in  the  cost  of  the  article  which  is  brought  to  market. 

Amongst  the  causes  which  tend  to  the  cheap  production  of  any 
article,  and  which  are  connected  with  the  employment  of  additional 
capital,  may  be  mentioned  the  care  which  is  taken  to  prevent  the 
absolute  waste  of  any  part  of  the  raw  material  An  attention  to 
this  circumstance  sometimes  causes  the  union  of  two  trades  in  one 
factory,  which  otherwise  might  have  been  separated. 

An  enumeration  of  the  arts  to  which  the  horns  of  cattle  are  ap- 
plicable, will  furnish  a  striking  example  of  this  kind  of  economy. 
The  tanner  who  has  purchased  the  raw  hides,  separates  the  horns, 
and  sells  them  to  the  makers  of  combs  and  lanterns.  The  horn 
consists  of  two  parts,  an  outward  horny  case,  and  an  inward  conical 
substance,  somewhat  intermediate  between  indurated  hair  and  bone. 
The  first  process  consists  in  separating  these  two  parts,  by  means 
of  a  blow  against  a  block  of  wood.  The  horny  exterior  is  then  cut 
into  three  portions  with  a  frame-saw. 

1.  The  lowest  of  these,  next  the  root  of  the  horn,  after  under- 
going  several  processes,  by  which  it  is  flattened,  is  made  into 
combs.  2.  The  middle  of  the  horn,  after  being  flattened  by  heat, 
and  having  its  transparency  improved  by  oil,  is  split  into  thin 
layers,  and  forms  a  substitute  for  glass,  in  lanterns  of  the  commonest 
kind.  3.  The  tip  of  the  horn  is  used  by  the  makers  of  knife-han- 
dles, and  of  the  tops  of  whips,  and  for  other  similar  purposes.  4. 
The  interior,  or  core  of  the  horn,  is  boiled  down  in  water.  A 
large  quantity  of  fat  rises  to  the  surface  ;  this  is  put  aside,  and  sold 
to  the  makers  of  yellow  soap.  5.  The  liquid  itself  is  used  as  a 
kind  of  glue,  and  is  purchased  by  cloth-dressers  for  stiffening.  6. 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  401 

The  insoluble  substance,  which  remains  behind,  is  then  sent  to  the 
mill,  and,  being  ground  down,  is  sold  to  the  farmers  for  manure. 
7.  Besides  these  various  purposes  to  which  the  different  parts  of 
the  horn  are  applied,  the  clippings  which  arise  in  comb-making  are 
sold  to  the  farmer  for  manure.  In  the  first  year  after  they  are 
spread  over  the  soil  they  have  comparatively  little  effect,  but  during 
the  next  four  or  five  their  efficiency  is  considerable.  The  shavings 
which  form  the  refuse  of  the  lantern-maker,  are  of  a  much  thinner 
texture :  some  of  them  are  cut  into  various  figures,  and  painted, 
and  used  as  toys  ;  for  being  hygrometric,  they  curl  up  when  placed 
on  the  palm  of  a  warm  hand.  But  the  greater  part  of  these  shav- 
ings also  are  sold  for  manure,  and  from  their  extremely  thin  and 
divided  form,  the  full  effect  is  produced  upon  the  first  crop. 

In  many  of  the  large  establishments  of  our  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts, substances  are  employed  which  are  the  produce  of  remote 
countries,  and  which  are,  in  several  instances,  almost  peculiar  to 
a  few  situations.  The  discovery  of  any  new  locality,  where  such 
articles  exist  in  abundance,  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  any 
establishment  which  consumes  them  in  large  quantities  ;  and  it  has 
been  found,  in  some  instances,  that  the  expense  of  sending  persons 
to  great  distances,  purposely  to  discover  and  to  collect  such  pro- 
duce, has  been  amply  repaid.  Thus  it  has  happened,  that  the 
snowy  mountains  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  as  well  as  the  warmer 
hills  of  Corsica,  have  been  almost  stripped  of  one  of  their  vegetable 
productions,  by  agents  sent  expressly  from  one  of  our  largest  es- 
tablishments for  the  dyeing  of  calicoes.  Owing  to  the  same  com- 
mand of  capital,  and  to  the  scale  upon  which  the  operations  of  large 
factories  are  carried  on,  their  returns  admit  of  the  expense  of  send- 
ing out  agents  to  examine  into  the  wants  and  tastes  of  distant 
countries,  as  well  as  of  trying  experiments,  which,  although  pro- 
fitable to  them,  would  be  ruinous  to  smaller  establishments  possess- 
ing more  limited  resources. 

When  capital  has  been  invested  in  machinery,  and  in  buildings 
for  its  accommodation,  and  when  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbor- 
hood have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  modes  of  working  at  the 
machines,  reasons  of  considerable  weight  are  required  to  cause 
their  removal.  Such  changes  of  position  do,  however,  occur  ;  and 
they  have  been  alluded  to  by  the  committee  on  the  fluctuation  of 
manufacturers1  employment,  as  one  of  the  causes  interfering  most 
materially  with  a  uniform  rate  of  wages  ;  it  is  therefore  of  par- 
ticular importance  to  the  workmen  to  be  acquainted  with  the  real 
causes  which  have  driven  manufactures  from  their  ancient  seats. 

"  The  migration  or  change  of  place  of  any  manufacture  has 
sometimes  arisen  from  improvements  of  machinery  not  applicable 


4C2  ANECDOTES, 

to  the  spot  where  such  manufacture  was  carried  on,  as  appears  to 
have  been  the  case  with  the  woollen  manufacture,  which  has  in 
great  measure  migrated  from  Essex,  Suffolk,  and  other  southern 
counties,  to  the  northern  districts,  where  coal  for  the  use  of  the 
steam  engine  is  much  cheaper.  But  this  change  has,  in  some 
instances,  been  caused  or  accelerated  by  the  conduct  of  the  work- 
men,  in  refusing  a  reasonable  reduction  of  wages,  or  opposing  the 
introduction  of  some  kind  of  improved  machinery  or  process  ;  so 
that,  during  the  dispute,  another  spot  has  in  great  measure  sup- 
plied  their  place  in  the  market.  Any  violence  used  by  the  work- 
men  against  the  property  of  their  employers,  and  any  unreasonable 
combination  on  their  part,  is  almost  sure  thus  to  be  injurious  to 
themselves.11 

These  removals  become  of  serious  consequence  when  the  facto- 
ries have  been  long  established,  because  a  population  commensurate 
with  their  wants  invariably  grows  up  around  them.  The  combi- 
nations in  Nottinghamshire,  of  persons  under  the  name  of  Luddites, 
drove  a  great  number  of  lace-frames  from  that  district,  and  caused 
establishments  to  be  formed  in  Devonshire.  We  ought  also  to 
observe,  that  the  effect  of  driving  any  establishment  into  a  new 
district,  where  similar  works  have  not  previously  existed,  is  not 
merely  to  place  it  out  of  the  reach  of  such  combinations,  but,  after 
a  few  years,  the  example  of  its  success  will  most  probably  induce 
our  capitalists  in  the  new  district  to  engage  in  the  same  manufac- 
ture :  and  thus,  although  one  establishment  only  should  be  driven 
away,  the  workmen,  through  whose  combination  its  removal  is 
effected,  will  not  merely  suffer  by  the  loss  of  that  portion  of  demand 
for  their  labor  which  the  factory  caused  ;  but  the  value  of  that  labor 
will  itself  be  reduced  by  the  competition  of  a  new  field  of  production. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  more  intelligent  amongst  the 
class  of  workmen  should  examine  into  the  correctness  of  these 
views ;  because,  without  having  their  attention  directed  to  them, 
the  whole  class  may,  in  some  instances,  be  led  by  designing  per- 
sons to  pursue  a  course,  which,  although  plausible  in  appearance, 
is  in  reality  at  variance  with  their  own  best  interests. — Babbage's 
Economy  of  Man. 


The  Mechanical  Fiddler. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  the  best  attested  instances  of 
enthusiasm,  existing  in  conjunction  with  perseverance,  is  related 

of  the  founder  of  the  F- family.     This  man,  who  was  a  fiddler 

living  near  Stourbridge,  was  often  witness  of  the  immense  labor 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  403 

and  loss  of  time  caused  by  dividing  the  rods  of  iron  necessary  in 
the  process  of  making  nails.  The  discovery  of  the  process  called 
splitting,  in  works  called  splitting-mills,  was  first  made  in  Sweden; 
and  the  consequences  of  this  advance  in  art  were  most  disastrous 

to  the  manufacturers  of  iron  about  Stourbridge.     F the  fiddler 

was  shortly  missed  from  his  accustomed  rounds,  and  was  not  again 
seen  for  many  years.  He  had  mentally  resolved  to  ascertain  by 
what  means  the  process  of  splitting  bars  of  iron  was  accomplish, 
ed ;  and  without  communicating  his  intention  to  a  single  human 
being,  he  proceeded  to  Hull,  and,  without  funds,  worked  his  pas- 
sage to  the  Swedish  iron  port.  Arrived  in  Sweden,  he  begged 
and  fiddled  his  way  to  the  iron  foundries,  where  he,  after  a  time, 
became  a  universal  favorite  with  the  workmen  ;  and  from  the  ap- 
parent entire  absence  of  intelligence,  or  any  thing  like  ultimate 
object,  he  was  received  into  the  works,  to  every  part  of  which  he 
had  access.  He  took  the  advantage  thus  offered,  and,  having 
stored  his  memory  with  observations,  and  all  the  combinations,  he 
disappeared  from  amongst  his  kind  friends  as  he  had  appeared,  no 
one  knew  whence  or  whither. 

On  his  return  to  England,  he  communicated  his  voyage  and  its 
result  to  Mr.  Knight  and  another  person  in  the  neighborhood,  with 
whom  he  was  associated,  and  by  whom  the  necessary  buildings 
were  erected,  and  machinery  provided.  When  at  length  every 
thing  was  prepared,  it  was  found  that  the  machinery  would  not  act ; 
at  all  events  it  did  not  answer  the  sole  end  of  its  erection — it  would 
not  split  the  bar  of  iron.  F disappeared  again  ;  it  was  con- 
cluded that  shame  and  mortification  at  his  failure  had  driven  him 
away  forever.  Not  so  ;  again,  though  somewhat  more  speedily, 
he  found  his  way  to  the  Swedish  iron-works,  where  he  was  receiv- 
ed most  joyfully,  and,  to  make  sure  of  their  fiddler,  he  was  lodged 
in  the  splitting-mill  itself.  Here  was  the  very  aim  and  end  of  his 
life  attained,  beyond  his  utmost  hope.  He  examined  the  works, 
and  very  soon  discovered  the  cause  of  his  failure.  He  now  made 
drawings,  or  rude  tracings  ;  and  having  abided  an  ample  time  to 
verify  his  observations,  and  to  impress  them  clearly  and  vividly  on 
his  mind,  he  made  his  way  to  the  port,  and  once  more  returned  to 
England.  This  time  he  was  completely  successful,  and  by  the 
results  of  his  experience  enriched  himself  and  greatly  benefited 
his  countrymen,  who  doubtless  came  to  the  conclusion  that  he  at 
least  fiddled  to  some  purpose. 


404  ANECDOTES, 

Corn  Mills  in  Ancient  Times. 

Till  about  fifty  years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  ancients  had  no  large  mills  forced  round  by  water,  but 
ground  their  corn  in  small  mills  of  one  stone  rolling  rapidly  round 
upon  another,  and  impelled  by  the  hands  of  women-servants  or 
slaves.  The  stones  used  for  that  purpose  were  circular,  portable, 
nicely  wrought,  and  adapted  for  turning  ;  the  upper  one  being  the 
smaller  of  the  two,  with  an  iron  or  wooden  handle  fixed  into  its 
edge  ;  the  lower  being  larger,  and  probably  harder — at  least  if  we 
may  infer  from  an  expression  in  the  book  of  Job,  "  hard  as  a  piece 
of  the  nether  millstone."  An  excellent  quarry  in  the  neighbor, 
hood  of  Babylon  (we  are  informed  by  Xenophon)  supplied  all  the 
countries  of  the  East  with  such  millstones. 

That  women,  or  maid-servants,  generally  performed  this  piece 
of  domestic  labor,  we  are  assured  by  the  very  first  mention  made 
of  grinding  with  mills,  that  in  Exodus,  (xi.  5,)  "  All  the  first-born 
in  the  land  of  Egypt  shall  die,  from  the  first-born  of  Pharaoh  that 
sitteth  upon  the  throne,  even  unto  the  first-born  of  the  maid-servant 
that  is  behind  the  mill;"  in  which  passage,  from  the  contrasted 
states  of  dignity  and  meanness,  it  is  plain,  that,  in  Egypt  at  least, 
the  drudgery  of  grinding  was  deemed  the  lowest  possible.  Two 
women  were  generally  employed ;  they  sat  fronting  each  other, 
with  the  millstone  between  them,  which  was  kept  whirling  by 
alternate  impulsions  of  the  hand.  Slaves  taken  in  war  were  fre- 
quently doomed  to  undergo  this  tedious  penance ;  Samson  "  did 
grind  in  the  prison-house  of  the  Philistines  ;"  the  Hebrews,  in  their 
Babylonish  captivity,  were  subjected  to  its  degradation  ;  "  they 
took  our  young  men  to  grind,"  says  Jeremiah  in  his  Lamentations ; 
and  Isaiah,  in  his  prophetic  declaration  to  Babylon  of  her  impend- 
ing state  of  captivity,  bids  her,  as  a  proper  badge  of  her  servile 
subjection,  "take  millstones '  and  grind  meal."  The  piece  of  a 
millstone  whereby  Abimelech  was  slain,  when  he  was  attacking 
the  tower  of  Thebez,  was  cast  upon  his  head  by  a  "  certain  wo- 
man," whom  it  befitted  to  wield  as  a  weapon,  the  humble  utensil 
of  her  daily  occupation. 

Portable  millstones  of  this  description  must  have  been  brought 
by  the  children  of  Israel  from  Egypt,  and  carried  with  them  all 
the  way  through  the  wilderness,  as  we  read  in  Numbers,  (xi.  8,) 
that  "  the  people  ground  the  manna  in  mills."  As  by  the  laws  of 
Athens  no  creditor  was  allowed  to  distrain  the  plough  and  other 
simple  and  necessary  utensils  of  rustic  labor,  so  by  the  laws  of 
Moses,  (Deut.  xxiv.  6,)  it  was  permitted  to  no  man  "  to  take  the 
nether  or  the  upper  millstone  to  pledge" — in  other  words,  to  take 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  405 

them  by  distraint  in  lieu  of  any  debt.  The  morning,  before  or  at 
sunrise,  was  the  time  allotted  in  the  domestic  arrangement  for 
grinding  for  the  family  as  much  flour  as  was  needful  for  the  con- 
sumption of  the  day. 

An  interesting  particular  connected  with  the  practice  of  noctur- 
nal grinding,  may  be  quoted  from  the  military  history  of  Julian. 
His  forces,  when  besieging  some  strong  place  on  the  Tigris,  had 
wrought  a  deep  mine  under  the  walls  and  buildings  to  the  very 
centre  of  the  city,  when  his  soldiers,  on  digging  the  earth  upwards 
to  the  surface,  found  themselves  after  midnight  in  the  middle  of  the 
house  of  a  poor  woman,  who  was  busily  employed  in  grinding  corn 
for  flour-bread,  and  who,  doubtless,  was  not  a  little  astonished  at 
the  emersion  into  her  solitary  chamber  of  such  extraordinary  vi- 
sitants. 

The  operation  of  grinding  by  the  females  was  always  accompa- 
nied, as  it  still  is  in  the  East,  with  melodious  and  shrill-trilled  dit- 
ties, sung  in  chorus,  which  sounded  strong  enough  to  be  heard  out 
of  doors  throughout  all  the  lanes  and  streets ;  the  pleasant  jolity 
of  which,  associated  as  it  was  with  the  just  apparent  brightness  of 
dawn,  and  announcing  the  approaching  activity  of  village  or  city 
population  just  awaking  to  their  daily  labor,  gave  to  this  simple 
domestic  operation  a  peculiar  character  of  happiness,  peaceful  in- 
dustry, and  tranquillity.  The  Hebrew  writers,  accordingly,  always 
connect  the  sound  of  the  morning  mill  with  prosperity  and  repose, 
coupling  it,  in  its  degree  of  vivacity,  with  "  the  voice  of  harpers 
and  musicians  ;"  its  cessation  they  associate  with  the  presence  of 
melancholy,  trouble,  and  adversity.  Thus,  when  the  wise  man 
wishes  to  describe  the  dreary  melancholy  of  old  age,  he  expresses 
it  by  the  "  sound  of  the  grinding"  being  "  low."  "  I  will  take 
away  the  sound  of  the  millstone,"  says  Jeremiah,  to  express  utter 
desolation.  We  are  informed  by  travellers  that  such  lively  chants 
are  still  sung  by  females  in  Persia  and  Africa  when  engaged  in 
grinding.  The  heart  of  Mungo  Park,  in  the  Afric  desert,  was 
softened  and  reminded  of  his  home  by  the  chant  of  the  women 
grinding.  The  Grecian  women,  also,  had  a  ditty  of  this  kind, 
called  the  Song  of  the  Mill.  It  began,  "  Grind,  mill,  grind  ;  even 
Pittacus  king  of  Mitylene  doth  grind."  For  it  seems  that  Pitta- 
cus,  king,  or  tyrant,  as  he  was  called,  of  Mitylene,  and  reckoned 
also  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  had  been  accustomed, 
in  moments  of  unoccupied  languor,  to  resort  for  amusement  to  the 
grinding-mill,  that  being,  as  he  called  it,  his  best  gymnasium,  or 
pleasantest  exercise  in  smallest  space.  As  sometimes  for  health, 
so  sometimes  also  for  obtaining  an  honest  livelihood,  was  grinding 
resorted  to  by  persons  above  the  common  order.  There  is  a  story 

29 


406  ANECDOTES, 

told  of  the  two  philosophers  Menedemus  and  Asclepiades,  who, 
when  young  men,  and  students  of  wisdom  under  one  of  the  Athe- 
nian masters,  were  enabled  to  maintain  a  respectable  personal  ap- 
pearance by  grinding  every  night  at  the  mill  for  two  drachmae,  or 
about  Is.  4d.  a  night ;  on  hearing  which  signal  proof  of  industry, 
the  Areopagites,  in  admiration  of  their  love  of  wisdom  and  frugal- 
ity, presented  them  with  an  honorary  donation  of  two  hundred 
drachmoe,  to  support  them  during  their  time  of  study. 

The  Romans  seem  to  have  invented  a  larger  class  of  mills,  dri- 
ven by  mules,  asses,  or  oxen,  (called  mola3  jumentarisD,)  and  to 
have  introduced  them  during  the  course  of  their  conquests  in  the 
East.  The  stones  employed  in  these  mills  were  of  a  larger  size, 
and  much  more  operose  in  their  revolution,  and  effective  in  their 
labor.  Allusion  is  made  to  one  of  these  larger  millstones  in  the 
passage  of  the  Gospel,  (Luke  xvii.  2,)  where  it  is  said,  "  it  were 
better  that  a  millstone  were  hanged  about  his  neck,"  the  larger 
millstone  impelled  by  asses  being  there  understood  in  the  original ; 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  emphasis  given  to  the  sentiment  by 
the  distinctive  word  implying  the  larger  stone,  is  lost  in  our  trans- 
lation. 

The  first  corn-mill  driven  by  water  was  invented  and  set  up  by 
Mithridates,  king  of  Cappadocia,  the  most  talented,  studious,  and 
ingenious  prince  of  any  age  or  country.  It  was  set  up  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  his  capital  or  palace,  about  seventy  years  before  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  It  was  probably  from  this 
favorable  circumstance  of  the  invention  of  the  water-mill,  and  the 
facility  thereby  afforded  to  the  Cappadocian  people  for  making 
cheap,  good,  and  abundant  flour,  that  the  Cappadocian  bakers  ob- 
tained high  celebrity,  and  were  much  in  demand  for  two  or  three 
centuries  posterior  to  the  invention  of  mills,  throughout  all  the  Ro- 
man world.  Coincident  with  the  era  of  the  inventor,  as  mention- 
ed by  Strabo,  is  the  date  of  the  Greek  epigram  on  water-mills  by 
Antipater,  a  poet  of  Syria  or  Asia  Minor,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  sixty  or  eighty  years  before  Christ.  This  epigram  may  be 
thus  translated : — 

Ye  maids,  who  toil'd  so  faithful  at  the  mill, 
Now  cease  from  work,  and  from  these  toils  be  still ; 
*          Sleep  now  till  dawn,  and  let  the  birds  with  glee 
Sing  to  the  ruddy  morn  on  bush  and  tree ; 
For  what  your  hands  performed  so  long,  so  true, 
Ceres  has  charg'd  the  water-nymphs  to  do ; 
They  come,  the  limpid  sisters,  to  her  call, 
And  on  the  wheel  with  dashing  fury  fall ; 
Impel  the  axle  with  a  whirling  sound, 
And  make  the  massy  millstone  reel  around, 
And  bring  the  floury  heaps  luxuriant  to  the  ground. 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  407 

The  greater  convenience  and  expedition  in  working  of  these 
water-mills  soon  made  them  be  spread  over  the  world.  In  about 
twenty  or  thirty  years  after  their  invention,  one  was  set  up  on  the 
Tiber.  They  must  have  been  not  uncommon  in  Italy  in  the  age 
of  Vitruvius,  for  he  gives  a  description  of  them.  Yet  it  is  rather 
surprising  that  Pliny,  whose  eye  nothing  of  art  or  nature  escapes, 
has  taken  no  notice  of  them.  In  the  age  of  Theodosius,  (about 
380  A.  D.,)  the  public  corn-mills  of  the  city  of  Rome  seem  to  have 
been  wrought  principally  or  altogether  by  slaves.  According  to  an 
historian,  these  corn-mills  were  all  placed  in  the  subterranean 
apartments  or  cellars  of  an  immense  pile  of  buildings  used  by  the 
Roman  bakers  as  a  public  bakehouse.  He  tells  a  strange  story 
of  this  Roman  pistrinum.  It  was  built,  it  seems,  on  an  immense 
scale,  with  grinding  dungeons  below,  and  shops  or  taverns  along 
its  front  and  sides,  where  were  sold  the  loaves,  and  wherein  were 
at  the  same  time  exhibited  other  tavern  temptations  to  seduce  the 
simple  ones  and  the  strangers.  Into  these  trap-taverns  people  went 
without  suspicion  ;  but  no  sooner  were  some  of  them  wheedled  in, 
than,  by  means  of  some  mechanical  pitfalls  made  in  the  floor,  they 
were  precipitated  into  the  grinding-vault,  and  found  themselves 
irrecoverably  caught  and  imprisoned.  There  they  were  compelled 
to  work  as  drudges  of  the  mill,  their  friends  all  the  while  believing 
them  dead.  At  last  the  insidious  bakehouse  was  exposed  and 
destroyed  by  a  soldier  of  Theodosius.  He,  too,  was  plunged  into 
the  subterranean  mill-house,  but  fortunately  having  his  sword  at  his 
side,  he  drew  it,  and  by  the  terror  of  his  menaces,  and  his  layings- 
about,  he  forced  the  people  to  let  him  go.  The  insidious  work- 
house was  exposed,  and,  by  the  order  of  the  emperor,  demolished 
to  its  foundations.  At  a  later  period,  Rome  was  supplied  with 
meal  from  mills  placed  upon  boats  on  the  Tiber,  the  rush  of  the 
water  driving  the  wheels. 

Mills  on  a  large  scale  have  been  for  ages  established  in  all  Eu- 
ropean and  other  countries  in  which  the  arts  have  been  improved. 
In  some  of  the  remote  parts  of  the  British  islands,  however,  the 
practice  of  bruising  corn  in  a  mortar,  or  of  grinding  it  in  a  small 
hand-mill,  is  not  yet  entirely  disused.  In  the  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, these  rudely  fashioned  hand-mills  are  called  querns  ;  and  the 
primeval  practice  of  singing  while  working  at  them  is  still  kept  up. 
Pennant,  in  his  Tour  through  Scotland  in  1769,  gives  drawings  of 
the  Highland  querns.  Mr.  Robert  Jamieson,  in  a  work  entitled 
"  Popular  Ballads  and  Songs,"  of  which  he  was  editor,  relates  the 
following  interesting  anecdote,  illustrative  of  the  condition  of  life  in 
which  the  quern  is  still,  or  was  lately,  in  use  : — 
k  "  On  a  very  hot  day  in  the  beginning  of  autumn,  the  author, 


408  ANECDOTES, 

when  a  stripling,  was  travelling  afoot  over  the  mountains  of  Loch- 
aber,  from  Fort  Augustus  to  Inverness  ;  and  when  he  came  to  the 
house  where  he  was  to  have  breakfasted,  there  was  no  person  at 
home,  nor  was  there  any  place  where  refreshment  was  to  be  had 
nearer  than  Duris,  which  is  eighteen  miles  from  Fort  Augustus. 
With  this  disagreeable  prospect,  he  proceeded  about  three  miles 
farther,  and  turned  aside  to  the  first  cottage  he  saw,  where  he  found 
a  hale-looking,  lively,  tidy,  little,  middle-aged  woman,  spinning 
wool,  with  a  pot  on  the  fire,  and  some  greens  ready  to  be  put  into 
it.  She  understood  no  English,  and  his  Gaelic  was  then  by  no 
means  good,  though  he  spoke  it  well  enough  to  be  intelligible.  She 
informed  him  that  she  had  nothing  in  the  house  that  could  be  eaten, 
except  cheese,  a  little  sour  cream,  and  some  whiskey.  On  being 
asked,  rather  sharply,  how  she  could  dress  the  greens  without  meal, 
she  good-humoredly  told  him  that  there  was  plenty  of  meal  in  the 
croft,  pointing  to  some  un  reaped  barley  that  stood  dead -ripe  and 
dry  before  the  door ;  and  if  he  could  wait  half  an  hour;  he  should 
have  brose  and  butter,  bread  and  cheese,  bread  and  milk,  or  any 
thing  else  that  he  chose.  To  this  he  most  readily  assented,  as 
well  on  account  of  the  singularity  of  the  proposal,  as  of  the  necessity 
of  the  time ;  and  the  good  dame  set  with  all  possible  expedition 
about  her  arduous  undertaking.  She  first  of  all  brought  him  some 
cream  in  a  bottle,  telling  him,  l  He  that  will  not  work,  neither  shall 
he  eat  j1  if  he  wished  for  butter,  he  must  shake  that  bottle  with 
all  his  might,  and  sing  to  it  like  a  mavis  all  the  time  ;  for  unless 
he  sang  to  it,,  no  butter  would  come.  She  then  went  to  the  croft, 
cut  down  some  barley,  burnt  the  straw  to  dry  the  grain,  rubbed 
the  grain  between  her  hands,  and  threw  it  up  before  the  wind  to 
separate  it  from  the  husks  ;  ground  it  upon  a  quern,  sifted  it,  made 
a  bannock  of  the  meal,  set  it  up  to  bake  before  the  fire  ;  lastly, 
went  to  milk  her  caw,  that  was  reposing  during  the  heat  of  the 
day,  and  eating  some  outside  cabbage  leaves '  ayont  the  hallan.1  She 
sang  like  a  lark  the  whole  time,  varying  the  strain  according  to 
the  employment  to  which  it  was  adapted.  In  the  mean  while,  a  hen 
cackled  under  the  eaves  of  the  cottage  ;  two  new-laid  eggs  were 
immediately  plunged  into  the  boiling  pot,  and  in  less  than  half  an 
hour,  the  poor,  starving,  faint,  and  way-worn  minstrel,  with  won. 
der  and  delight  sat  down  to  a  repast,  that,  under  such  circumstan- 
ces,, would  have  been  a  feast  for  a  prince." 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  409 

The  Olelisk  of  Luxor. 

We  fancy  there  are  few  of  our  readers  but  have  read  descrip- 
tions and  seen  drawings  or  prints  of  the  two  remarkable  obelisks 
called  Cleopatra's  Needles,  near  Alexandria,  on  the  coast  of 
Egypt.  Of  these  only  one  is  erect ;  the  other  has  been  for  many 
years  prostrate  and  half  buried  in  sand. 

Among  the  treasures  of  antiquity  found  in  the  interior  of  Egypt, 
and  particularly  in  the  Thebaid,  were,  till  very  lately,  two  granite 
columns  of  precisely  the  same  character  as  Cleopatra's  Needles. 
Of  these,  one  remains  on  the  desolate  spot ;  the  other,  with  great 
labor  and  expense,  has  been  transported  to  the  flourishing  capital 
of  France. 

When  the  French  army,  in  their  attempt  on  Egypt,  penetrated 
as  far  as  Thebes,  they  were,  almost  to  a  man,  overpowered  by 
the  majesty  of  the  ancient  monuments  they  saw  before  them ;  and 
Bonaparte  is  then  said  to  have  conceived  the  idea  of  removing  at 
least  one  of  the  obelisks  to  Paris.  But  reverses  and  defeat  follow- 
ed.  The  French  were  forced  to  abandon  Egypt ;  and  the  English 
remaining  masters  of  the  seas,  effectually  prevented  any  such  im- 
portation into  France. 

The  project  of  Bonaparte  had  the  sort  of  classical  precedent  he 
so  much  admired.  Roman  conquerors  and  Roman  emperors  had 
successively  enriched  the  capital  of  the  world  with  the  monuments 
of  subdued  nations,  and  with  the  spoils  of  art  from  Sicily,  Greece, 
and  Egypt.  Among  these,  the  Emperor  Augustus  ordered  two 
Egyptian  obelisks,  also  of  the  same  character  as  Cleopatra^ 
Needles,  to  be  brought  to  Rome.  To  this  end  an  immense  vessel 
of  a  peculiar  construction  was  built ;  and  when,  after  a  tedious 
and  difficult  voyage,  it  reached  the  Tiber  with  its  freight,  one  of 
the  columns  was  placed  in  the  Grand  Circus,  and  the  other  in  the 
Campus  Martius,  at  Rome.  Caligula  adorned  Rome  with  a  third 
Egyptian  obelisk,  obtainedjn  the'  same  manner. 

The  Emperor  Constantine,  still  more  ambitious  of  these  costly 
foreign  ornaments,  resolved  to  decorate  his  new-founded  capital 
of  Constantinople  with  the  largest  of  all  the  obelisks  that  stood 
on  the  ruins  of  Thebes.  He  succeeded  in  having  it  conveyed  as 
far  a»- Alexandria;  but,  dying  at  the  time,  its  destination  was 
changed,  and  an  enormous  raft,  managed  by  300  rowers,  trans- 
ported the  granite  obelisk  from  Alexandria  to  Rome.  The  diffi- 
culties encountered  by  the  large,  flat,  awkward  vessel  do  not 
appear  to  have  occurred  during  the  passage  across  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  was,  no  doubt,  effected  during  the  fine,  settled 
summer  season,  when  that  sea  is  often,  for  weeks  together,  almost 

29* 


410  ANECDOTES, 

as  calm  as  a  small  fresh-water  lake ;  but  they  presented  them- 
selves at  the  passage  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  and  in  the  shal- 
lows of  that  river.  When  all  these  obstacles  were  overcome,  it 
required  the  labor  of  thousands  of  men  to  set  up  the  obelisk  upon 
its  base  at  Rome. 

The  Emperor  Theodosius,  at  last,  succeeding  in  bringing  an 
obelisk  from  Egypt  to  Constantinople,  erected  it  in  the  Hippo- 
drome. Though  this  was  of  an  inferior  size,  (being  rather  under 
than  over  fifty  feet,)  it  is  recorded  that  it  required  thirty-two  days1 
labor,  and  the  most  complicated  contrivances  of  mechanics  to  set 


it  upright. 
The  Coi 


Constantinopolitan  obelisk  still  stands  where  it  was  first 
erected  by  the  emperor  ;  but  those  of  Rome  have  been  removed 
by  the  Popes.  In  all,  there  are  twelve  ancient  obelisks  erect  in 
the  modern  city  of  Rome. 

Thirty  years  after  Bonaparte's  first  conception  of  the  idea,  the 
French  government,  then  under  Charles  X.,  having  obtained  the 
consent  of  the  pasha  of  Egypt,  determined  that  one  of  the  obelisks 
of  Luxor  should  be  brought  to  Paris.  "  The  difficulties  of  doing 
this,"  says  M.  Delaborde,  "  were  great.  In  the  first  place  it  was 
necessary  to  build  a  vessel  which  should  be  large  enough  to  con- 
tain the  monument, — deep  enough  to  stand  the  sea, — and,  at  the 
same  time,  draw  so  little  water  as  to  be  able  to  ascend  and  de- 
scend such  rivers  as  the  Nile  and  the  Seine." 

In  the  month  of  February,  1831,  when  the  crown  of  France 
had  passed  into  the  hands  of  Louis  Philippe,  a  vessel,  built  as 
nearly  as  could  be  on  the  necessary  principles,  was  finished  and 
equipped  at  Toulon.  This  vessel,  which  for  the  sake  of  lightness 
was  chiefly  made  of  fir  and  other  white  wood,  .was  named  the 
"  Louxor."  The  crew  consisted  of  120  seamen,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Lieutenant  Verninac  of  the  French  royal  navy ;  and 
there  went,  besides,  sixteen  mechanics  of  different  professions, 
and  a  master  to  direct  the  works,  under  the  superintendence  of 
M.  Lebas,  formerly  a  pupil  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  now  a 
naval  engineer. 

M.  J.  P.  Angelina  accompanied  the  expedition  in  quality  of 
surgeon-major  ;  and  to  a  volume  which  this  gentleman  has  re- 
cently published  at  Paris  we  are  indebted  for  an  account  of  its 
proceedings. 

On  the  15th  of  April,  1831,  (which  we  should  have  thought  two 
months  too  early  in  the  season,)  the  "  Louxor"  sailed  from  Toulon. 
Some  rather  violent  winds  and  heavy  seas  proved  that  a  vessel  so 
built  was  not  very  seaworthy,  and  appear  to  have  somewhat 
frightened  the  "  Chirurgien-Major ;"  but  they  arrived  without  any 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  4H 

serious  accident  in  the  port  of  Alexandria  on  the  3d  of  May. 
After  staying  forty-two  days  at  Alexandria,  the  expedition  sailed 
again  on  the  15th  of  June  for  the  Rosetta  mouth  of  the  Nile,  which 
they  entered  on  the  following  day,  though  not  without  danger 
from  the  sand-bank  which  the  river  has  deposited  there.  At 
Rosetta  they  remained  some  days ;  and  on  the  20th  of  June,  M. 
Lebas,  the  engineer,  two  officers,  and  a  few  of  the  sailors  and 
workmen,  leaving  the  "  Louxor"  to  make  her  way  up  the  river 
slowly,  embarked  in  common  Nile-boats  for  Thebes,  carrying  with 
them  the  tools  and  materials  necessary  for  the  removal  of  the 
obelisk.  On  the  7th  of  July,  when  the  waters  of  the  Nile  had 
risen  considerably,  the  "  Louxor"  sailed  from  Rosetta  ;  on  the 
13th  she  reached  Boulak,  the  port  of  Grand  Cairo,  where  she 
remained  until  the  19th ;  and  she  did  not  arrive  at  Thebes  until 
the  14th  of  August,  which  was  two  months  after  her  departure 
from  Alexandria. 

The  Turks  and  Arabs  were  astonished  at  seeing  so  large  a 
vessel  on  the  Nile,  and  frequently  predicted  she  would  not  accom- 
plish the  whole  voyage.  The  difficulties  encountered  in  so  doing 
were,  indeed,  very  serious ;  in  spite  of  the  peculiar  build  and 
material,  the  vessel  grounded  and  struck  fast  in  the  sand  several 
times  ;  at  other  times  a  contrary  wind,  joined  to  the  current,  which 
was  of  course  contrary  all  the  way  up,  obliged  them  to  lie  at 
anchor  for  days ;  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  ascent  of  the  river 
was  effected  by  towing,  which  exhausting  work  seems  to  have 
been  performed,  partly  by  the  French  sailors,  and  partly  by  such 
Arabs  and  Fellahs  as  they  could  hire  for  the  occasion.  An  ex- 
cessive heat  rendered  this  fatigue  still  more  insupportable.  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer  marked  from  98Q  to  102°  in  the  shade,  and 
ascended  to  144°,  and  even  to  160°  in  the  sun.  Several  of  the 
sailors  were  seized  with  dysentery,  and  the  quantity  of  sand  blown 
about  by  the  wind,  and  the  glaring  reflection  of  the  burning  sun, 
afflicted  others  with  painful  ophthalmia.  The  sand  must  have 
been  particularly  distressing  :  one  day  the  wind  raised  it  and 
rolled  it  onward  in  such  volume  as,  at  intervals,  to  obscure  the 
light  of  the  sun.  After  they  had  felicitated  themselves  on  the  fact 
that  the  plague  was  not  in  the  country,  they  were  struck  with 
alarm  on  the  29th  of  August,  by  learning  that  the  cholera  morbus 
had  broken  out  most  violently  at  Cairo.  On  the  llth  of  Septem- 
ber the  same  mysterious  disease  declared  itself  on  the  plain  of 
Thebes,  with  the  natives  of  which  the  French  were  obliged  to 
have  frequent  communications.  In  a  very  short  time  fifteen  of 
the  sailors,  according  to  our  author,  the  surgeon,  caught  the  con- 
tagion, but  every  one  recovered  under  his  care  and  skill.  At  the 


412  ANECDOTES, 

same  time,  however,  (panic  no  doubt  increasing  the  disposition  to 
disease,)  no  fewer  than  forty-eight  men  were  laid  up  with  dysen- 
tery, which  proved  fatal  to  two  of  them. 

In  the  midst  of  these  calamities  and  dangers,  the  French  sailors 
persevered  in  preparing  the  operations  relative  to  the  object  of 
the  expedition.  One  of  the  first  cares  of  M.  Lebas,  the  engineer, 
on  his  arriving  on  the  plain  of  Thebes,  was  to  erect,  near  to  the 
obelisks  and  not  far  from  the  village  of  Luxor,  proper  wooden 
barracks, — sheds  and  tents  to  lodge  the  officers,  sailors,  and  work- 
men, on  shore.  He  also  built  an  oven  to  bake  them  bread,  and 
magazines  in  which  to  secure  their  provisions,  and  the  sails,  cables, 
&c.,  of  the  vessel.  The  now  desolate  site  on  which  the  city  of 
the  Hundred  Gates,  the  vast,  the  populous,  and  the  wealthy  Thebes, 
once  stood,  offered  them  no  resources,  nor  a  single  comfort  of 
civilized  life.  But  French  soldiers  and  sailors  are  happily,  and, 
we  may  say,  honorably  distinguished,  by  the  facility  with  which 
they  adapt  themselves  to  circumstances,  and  turn  their  hands  to 
whatever  can  add  to  their  comfort  and  well-being. .  The  sailors  on 
this  expedition,  during  their  hours  of  repose  from  more  severe 
labors,  carefully  prepared  and  dug  up  pieces  of  ground  for  kitchen- 
gardens.  They  cultivated  bread-melons  and  water-melons,  let. 
tuces,  and  other  vegetables.  They  even  planted  some  trees, 
which  thrived  very  well ;  and,  in  short,  they  made  their  place  of 
temporary  residence  a  little  paradise  as  compared  with  the 
wretched  huts  and  neglected  fields  of  the  oppressed  natives. 

It  was  the  smaller  of  the  two  obelisks  the  French  had  to  re- 
move. But  this  smaller  column  of  hard,  heavy  granite  was  about 
ninety  or  a  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  was  calculated  to  weigh 
upwards  of  two  hundred  and  forty  tons.  It  stood,  moreover,  at 
the  distance  of  about  one  thousand  two  hundred  feet  from  the 
Nile,  and  the  intervening  space  presented  many  difficulties. 

M.  Lebas,  the  engineer,  commenced  by  making  an  inclined 
plane,  extending  from  the  base  of  the  obelisk  to  the  edge  of  the 
river.  This  work  occupied  nearly  all  the  French  sailors  and 
about  seven  hundred  Arabs  during  three  months,  for  they  were 
obliged  to  cut  through  two  hills  of  ancient  remains  and  rubbish, 
to  demolish  half  of  the  poor  villages  which  lay  in  their  way,  and 
to  beat,  equalize,  and  render  firm  the  uneven,  loose  and  crumbling 
soil.  This  done,  the  engineer  proceeded  to  make  the  ship  ready 
for  the  reception  of  the  obelisk.  The  vessel  had  been  left  aground 
by  the  periodical  fall  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  and  matters  had 
been  so  managed  that  she  lay  imbedded  in  the  sand,  with  her  fig- 
ure-head pointing  directly  towards  the  temple  and  the  granite  col- 
umn. The  engineer  taking  care  not  to  touch  the  keel;  sawed  off 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  413 

a  transverse  and  complete  section  of  the  front  of  the  ship ;  in 
short,  he  cut  away  her  bows,  which  were  raised,  and  kept  suspend, 
ed  above  the  place  they  properly  occupied  by  means  of  pulleys  and 
some  strong  spars,  which  crossed  each  other  above  the  vessel. 

The  ship,  thus  opened,  presented  in  front  a  large  mouth  to  re- 
ceive its  cargo,  which  was  to  reach  the  very  lip  of  that  mouth  or 
opening,  by  sliding  down  the  inclined  plane.  When  this  section 
of  the  ship  was  effected,  they  took  care  that  she  should  lie  equally 
on  her  keel ;  and  where  the  sand  or  mud  was  weak,  or  had  fallen 
away  from  the  vessel,  they  supplied  proper  supports  and  props  to 
prevent  the  great  weight  of  the  column  from  breaking  her  back. 
The  preparations  for  bringing  the  obelisk  safely  down  to  the  ground 
lasted  from  the  llth  of  July  to  the  31st  of  October,  when  it  was 
laid  horizontally  on  its  side. 

The  rose-colored  granite  of  Syene,  (the  material  of  these  re- 
markable  works  of  ancient  art,)  though  exceedingly  hard,  is  rather 
brittle.  By  coming  in  contact  with  other  substances,  and  by  being 
impelled  along  the  inclined  plane,  the  beautiful  hieroglyphics  sculp- 
tured on  its  surface  might  have  been  defaced,  and  the  obelisk 
might  have  suffered  other  injuries.  To  prevent  these,  M.  Lebas 
encased  it,  from  its  summit  to  its  base,  in  strong  thick  wooden 
sheathings,  which  were  well  secured  to  the  column  by  means  of 
hoops.  The  western  face  of  this  covering,  which  was  that  upon 
which  the  obelisk  was  to  slide  down  the  inclined  plane,  was  ren- 
dered smooth,  and  was  well  rubbed  with  grease  to  make  it  run 
the  easier. 

The  mechanical  contrivance  to  lower  the  column,  which  was  by 
far  the  most  critical  part  of  these  operations,  is  described  as  hav- 
ing been  very  simple.  A  cable  of  immense  strength  was  attached 
to  a  strong  anchor  deeply  sunk  in  the  earth,  and  well  secured  at 
some  distance  from  the  monument.  This  cable  was  carried  for- 
ward and  made  fast  to  the  top  of  the  obelisk,  and  then  descending 
in  an  acute  angle  in  the  rear  of  the  obelisk,  the  cable  was  retained 
in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  anchor  by  means  of  an  enormous 
beam  of  wood,  and  by  a  series  of  pulleys  and  capstans.  The 
column  had  been  perfectly  cleared  from  the  sand  and  earth  round 
its  base,  and  walls  of  a  certain  height  erected  to  keep  it  in  the 
proper  line  of  descent.  Other  works  at  its  base  prevented  the 
column  from  sliding  backwards  in  its  descent,  and  a  strong  bed 
made  of  oak,  and  immediately  connected  with  the  inclined  plane, 
was  ready  to  receive  it,  and  pass  it  to  the  plane  when  it  reached 
a  certain  low  angle  of  declination. 

To  move  so  lofty  and  narrow  an  object  from  its  centre  of  gravity 
was  no  difficult  task, — but  then  came  the  moment  of  intense 


414  ANECDOTES, 

anxiety  !  The  whole  of  the  enormous  weight  bore  upon  the 
cable,  the  cordage,  and  machinery,  which  quivered  arid  cracked 
in  all  their  parts.  Their  tenacity,  however,  was  equal  to  the 
strain,  and  so  ingeniously  were  the  mechanical  powers  applied, 
that  eight  men  in  the  rear  of  the  descending  column  were  suffi- 
cient to  accelerate  or  retard  its  descent.  For  two  minutes  the 
obelisk  was  suspended  at  an  angle  of  30°, — but,  finally,  it  sank 
majestically  and  in  perfect  safety  to  the  bed  of  the  inclined 
plane. 

On  the  following  day  the  much  less  difficult  task  of  getting  the 
obelisk  on  board  the  ship  was  performed.  It  only  occupied  an 
hour  and  a  half  to  drag  the  column  down  the  inclined  plane,  and 
(through  the  open  mouth  in  front)  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel. 
The  section  of  the  suspended  bows  was  then  lowered  to  the  proper 
place,  and  readjusted  and  secured  as  firmly  as  ever  by  the  car- 
penters and  other  workmen.  So  nicely  was  this  important  part 
of  the  ship  sliced  off,  and  then  put  to  again,  that  the  mutilation 
was  scarcely  perceptible. 

The  obelisk,  as  we  have  seen,  was  embarked  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1831,  but  it  was  not  until  the  18th  of  August,  1832, 
that  the  annual  rise  of  the  Nile  afforded  sufficient  water  to  float 
.their  long-stranded  ship.  At  last,  however,  to  their  infinite  joy, 
they  were  ordered  to  prepare  every  thing  for  the  voyage  home- 
wards.  As  soon  as  this  was  done,  sixty  Arabs  were  engaged  to 
assist  in  getting  them  down  the  river,  (a  distance  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty  leagues,)  and  the  Louxor  set  sail. 

After 'thirty- six  days  of  painful  navigation,  but  without  meeting 
with  any  serious  accident,  they  reached  Rosetta ;  and  there  they  were 
obliged  to  stop,  because  the  sand-bank  off  that  mouth  of  the  Nile 
had  accumulated  to  such  a  degree,  that,  with  its  present  cargo, 
the  vessel  could  not  clear  it.  Fortunately,  however,  on  the  30th 
of  December,  a  violent  hurricane  dissipated  part  of  this  sand- 
bank ;  and,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1833,  at  ten  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  the  Louxor  shot  safely  out  of  the  Nile,  and  at  nine  o'clock 
on  the  following  morning  came  to  a  secure  anchorage  in  the  old 
harbor  of  Alexandria. 

Here  they  awaited  the  return  of  the  fine  season  for  navigating 
the  Mediterranean  ;  and  the  Sphynx  (a  French  man-of-war)  taking 
the  Louxor  in  tow,  they  sailed  from  Alexandria  on  the  1st  of  April. 
On  the  2d,  a  storm  commenced,  which  kept  the  Louxor  in  immi- 
nent danger  for  two  whole  days.  On  the  6th,  this  storm  abated ; 
but  the  wind  continued  contrary,  and  soon  announced  a  fresh 
tempest.  They  had  just  time  to  run  for  shelter  into  the  bay  of 
Marmara  when  the  storm  became  more  furious  than  ever. 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  415 

On  the  13th  of  April  they  again  weighed  anchor,  and  shaped 
their  course  for  Malta  ;  but  a  violent  contrary  wind  drove  them 
back  as  far  as  the  Greek  island  of  Milo,  where  they  were  detained 
two  days.  Sailing,  however,  on  the  17th,  they  reached  Navarino 
on  the  18th,  and  the  port  of  Corfu,  where,  they  say,  they  were 
kindly  received  by  Lord  Nugent  and  the  British,  on  the  23d  of 
April.  Between  Corfu  and  Cape  Spartivento,  heavy  seas  and 
high  winds  caused  the  Louxor  to  labor  and  strain  exceedingly. 
As  soon,  however,  as  they  reached  the  coast  of  Italy,  the  sea  be- 
came calm,  and  a  light  breeze  carried  them  forward,  at  the  rate 
of  four  knots  an  hour,  to  Toulon,  where  they  anchored  during  the 
evening  of  the  llth  of  May. 

They  had  now  reached  the  port  whence  they  had  departed,  but 
their  voyage  was  not  yet  finished.  There  is  no  carriage  by  water, 
or  by  any  other  commodious  means,  for  so  heavy  and  cumbrous 
a  mass  as  an  Egyptian  obelisk,  from  Toulon  to  Paris,  (a  distance 
of  above  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles.)  To  meet  this  difficulty 
they  must  descend  the  rest  of  the  Mediterranean,  pass  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  southern  coast  of  France,  and  all  the  south  of  Spain — 
sail  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  traverse  part  of  the 
Atlantic,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  which  river  affords  a 
communication  between  the  French  capital  and  the  ocean. 

Accordingly,  on  the  22d  of  June,  they  sailed  from  Toulon,  the 
Louxor  being  again  taken  in  tow  by  the  Sphynx  man-of-war  ;  and, 
after  experiencing  some  stormy  weather,  finally  reached  Cherbourg 
on  the  5th  of  August,  1833.  The  whole  distance  performed  in 
this  voyage  was  upwards  of  fourteen  hundred  leagues. 

As  the  royal  family  of  France  was  expected  at  Cherbourg  by 
the  ,31st  of  August,  the  authorities  detained  the  Louxor  there. 
On  the  2d  of  September,  King  Louis  Philippe  paid  a  visit  to  the 
vessel,  and  warmly  expressed  his  satisfaction  to  the  officers  and 
crew.  He  was  the  first  to  inform  M.  Verninac,  the  commander, 
that  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  of  a  sloop-of-war. 
On  the  following  day,  the  king  distributed  decorations  of  the  legion 
of  honor  to  the  officers,  and  entertained  them  at  dinner. 

The  Louxor,  again  towed  by  the  Sphynx,  left  Cherbourg  on  the 
12th  of  September,  and  safely  reached  Havre  de  Grace,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Seine.  Here  her  old  companion,  the  Sphynx,  which 
drew  too  much  water  to  be  able  to  ascend  the  river,  left  her,  and 
she  was  taken  in  tow  by  the  Heva  steamboat.  To  conclude  with 
the  words  of  our  author :  "  At  six  o'clock  (on  the  13th)  our  vessel 
left  the  sea  for  ever,  and  entered  the  Seine.  By  noon  we  had 
cleared  all  the  banks  and  impediments  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
river ;  and,  on  the  14th  of  September,  at  noon,  we  arrived  at 


410  ANECDOTES, 

Rouen,  where  the  Louxor  was  made  fast  before  the  quay  cTHar- 
court.  Here  we  must  remain  until  the  autumnal  rains  raise  the 
waters  of  the  Seine,  and  permit  us  to  transport  to  Paris  this 
pyramid, — the  object  of  our  expedition.11  This  event  has  since 
happened,  and  the  column  safely  erected  on  its  pedestal. 


American  Steamers. 

The  following  extract  from  a  late  London  work,  "  Stevenson^ 
Engineering  in  North  America,11  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  most 
of  our  readers  : — 

"  The  steam  navigation  of  the  United  States  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  subjects  connected  with  the  history  of  North  America ; 
and  it  is  strange  that  hitherto  we  should  have  received  so  little 
information  regarding  it,  especially  as  there  is  no  class  of  works, 
in  that  comparatively  new  and  still  rising  country,  which  bear 
stronger  marks  of  long-continued  exertion,  successfully  directed 
to  the  perfection  of  its  object,  than  are  presented  by  many  of  the 
steamboats  which  now  navigate  its  rivers,  bays,  and  lakes. 

"  It  would  be  improper  to  compare  the  present  state  of  steam 
navigation  in  America  with  that  of  this  country,  for  the  nature  of 
things  has  established  a  very  important  distinction  between  them. 
By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  American  steamboats  ply  on  the 
smooth  surfaces  of  rivers,  sheltered  bays,  or  arms  of  the  sea,  ex- 
posed neither  to  waves  nor  to  wind ;  whereas  most  of  the  steam- 
boats in  this  country  go  out  to  sea,  where  they  encounter  as  bad 
weather  and  as  heavy  waves  as  ordinary  sailing  vessels.  The 
consequence  is,  that  in  America  a  much  more  slender  built,  and  a 
more  delicate  mould,  give  the  requisite  strength  to  their  vessels, 
and  thus  a  much  greater  speed,  which  essentially  depends  upon 
these  two  qualities,  is  generally  obtained.  In  America,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  machinery  and  of  the  cabins,  which  are  raised  above 
the  deck  of  the  vessels,-  admits  of  powerful  engines,  with  an  enor- 
mous length  of  stroke  being  employed  to  propel  them ;  but  this 
arrangement  would  be  wholly  inapplicable  to  the  vessels  navigating 
our  coasts,  at  least  to  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  carried  in 
America. 

"  But  perhaps  the  strongest  proof  that  the  American  vessels  are 
very  differently  circumstanced  from  those  of  Europe,  and  there- 
fore admit  of  a  construction  more  favorable  for  the  attainment  of 
great  speed,  is  the  fact  that  they  are  not  generally,  as  in  Europe, 
navigated  by  persons  possessed  of  a  knowledge  of  seamanship. 
In  this  country  steam  navigation  produces  hardy  seamen;  and 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  417 

British  steamers  being  exposed  to  the  open  sea  in  all  weathers, 
are  furnished  with  masts  and  sails,  and  must  be  worked  by  persons 
who,  in  the  event  of  any  accident  happening  to  the  machinery,  are 
capable  of  sailing  the  vessel,  and  who  must  therefore  be  experi- 
enced seamen.  The  case  is  very  different  in  America,  where, 
with  the  exception  of  the  vessels  navigating  the  lakes,  and  one  or 
two  of  those  which  ply  on  the  eastern  coast,  there  is  not  a  steamer 
in  the  country  which  has  either  masts  or  sails,  or  is  commanded 
by  a  professional  seaman.  These  facts  forcibly  show  the  different 
state  of  steam  navigation  in  America,— a  st%te  very  favorable  for 
the  attainment  of  great  speed,  and  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in 
the  locomotive  art. 

"  The  early  introduction  of  steam  navigation  into  the  country, 
and  the  rapid  increase  which  has  since  taken  place  in  the  number 
of  steamboats,  have  afforded  an  extensive  field  for  the  prosecution 
of  valuable  inquiries  on  this  interesting  subject ;  and  the  builders 
of  steamboats,  by  availing  themselves  of  the  opportunities  held  out 
to  them,  have  been  enabled  to  make  constant  accessions  to  their 
practical  knowledge,  which  have  gradually  produced  important 
improvements  in  the  construction  and  action  of  their  vessels.  But 
on  minutely  examining  the  most  approved  American  steamers,  I 
found  it  impossible  to  trace  any  general  principles  which  seem  to 
have  served  as  guides  for  their  construction.  Every  American 
steamboat  builder  holds  opinions  of  his  own,  which  are  generally 
founded,  not  on  theoretical  principles,  but  on  deductions  drawn 
from  a  close  examination  of  the  practical  effects  of  the  different 
arrangements  and  proportions  adopted  in  the  construction  of  dif- 
ferent steamboats,  and  these  opinions  never  fail  to  influence,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  the  built  of  his  vessel,  and  the  proportions 
which  her  several  parts  are  made  to  bear  to  each  other. 

"  The  voyage  between  Albany  and  New  York  is  now  generally 
performed  in  ten  hours,  exclusive  of  the  time  lost  in  making  stop- 
pages, being  at  the  astonishing  rate  of  fifteen  miles  per  hour. 
They  have  effected  this  great  increase  of  speed  by  constantly 
making  experiments  on  the  form  and  proportions  of  their  engines 
and  vessels,- — in  short,  by  a  persevering  system  of  trial  and  error, 
which  is  still  going  forward ;  and  the  natural  consequence  is,  that, 
even  at  this  day,  no  two  steamboats  are  alike,  and  few  of  them 
have  attained  the  age  of  six  months  without  undergoing  some  ma- 
terial alterations. 

"  These  observations  apply  more  particularly  to  the  steamers 
navigating  the  eastern  waters  of  the  United  States,  where  the  great 
number  of  steamboat  builders,  and  the  rapid  increase  of  trade, 
have  produced  a  competition  which  has  led  to  the  construction  of 

30 


413  ANECDOTES, 

a  class  of  vessels  unequalled  in  point  of  speed  by  those  of  any  other 
quarter  of  the  globe.  The  original  construction  of  most  of  these 
vessels  has,  as  already  stated,  been  materially  changed.  The 
breadth  of  beam  and  the  length  of  keel  have  in  some  vessels  been 
increased,  and  in  others  they  have  been  diminished.  This  mode 
of  procedure  may  seem  rather  paradoxical ;  but  in  America  it  is 
no  uncommon  thing  to  alter  steamboats  by  cutting  them  through 
the  middle,  and  either  increasing  or  diminishing  their  dimensions 
as  the  occasion  may  require.  It  is  only  a  short  time  since  many 
of  the  steamboats  \vrgre  furnished  with  false  bows,  by  which  the 
length  of  the  deck  and  the  rake  of  the  cutwaters  were  greatly  in- 
creased. On  some  vessels  these  bows  still  remain ;  from  others 
they  have  been  removed, — subsequent  experiments  having  led  to 
the  conclusion,  that  a  perpendicular  bow  without  any  rake  is  best 
adapted  for  a  fast-sailing  boat.  When  I  visited  the  United  States 
in  1837,  the  '  Swallow '  held  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  two 
swiftest  steamers  which  have  ever  navigated  the  American  waters, 
and  this  vessel  had  received  an  addition  of  twenty-four  feet  to  her 
original  length,  besides  having  been  otherwise  considerably  changed. 
Before  these  alterations  were  made  on  her,  she  was  considered,  as 
regards  speed,  to  be  an  inferior  vessel. 

"  The  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  these  facts  are,  that  the  great 
experiment  for  the  improvement  of  steam  navigation,  in  which  the 
Americans  may  be  said  to  have  been  engaged  for  the  last  thirty 
years,  is  not  completed,  and  the  speed  at  which  they  have  suc- 
ceeded in  propelling  their  steam-vessels  may  yet  be  increased ; 
and  also  that,  in  the  construction  of  their  vessels,  they  have  been 
governed  by  experience  and  practice  alone,  without  attempting  to 
introduce  theoretical  principles,  in  the  application  of  which,  to  the 
practice  of  propelling  vessels,  by  the  action  of  paddle-wheels  on  the 
water,  numerous  difficulties  have  hitherto  been  experienced. 

"  There  are  local  circumstances,  connected  with  the  nature  of 
the  trade  in  which  the  steamboats  are  engaged,  and  the  waters 
which  they  are  intended  to  navigate,  that  have  given  rise  to  the 
employment  of  three  distinct  classes  of  vessels  in  American  steam 
navigation,  all  of  which  I  had  an  opportunity  of  sailing  in  and  par- 
ticularly examining. 

"  These  steamboats  may  be  ranged  under  the  following  classifi- 
cation : — First,  those  navigating  the  Eastern  waters.  This  class 
includes  all  the  vessels  plying  on  the  river  Hudson,  Long  Island 
Sound,  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  Bays,  and  all  those  which  run 
to  and  from  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Charles- 
ton, Norfolk,  and  the  other  ports  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  coun- 
try, or  what  the  Americans  call  the  sea-board.  Second,  those 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  419 

navigating  the  Western  waters,  including  all  the  steamers  em- 
ployed  on  the  river  Mississippi  and  its  numerous  tributaries,  in- 
eluding  the  Missouri  and  Ohio.  Third,  the  steamers  engaged  in 
the  Lake  navigation.  (  These  classes  of  vessels  vary  very  much 
in  their  construction,  which  has  been  modified  to  suit  the  respective 
services  for  which  they  are  intended. 

"  The  general  characteristics  by  which  the  Eastern  water  boats 
are  distinguished,  are,  a  small  draught  of  water,  great  speed,  and 
the  use  of  condensing  engines  of  large  dimensions,  having  a  great 
length  of  stroke.  On  the  Western  waters,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
vessels  have  a  greater  draught  of  water  and  less  speed,  and  are 
propelled  by  high-pressure  engines  of  small  size,  worked  by  steam 
of  great  elasticity.  The  steamers  on  the  Lakes,  again,  have  a 
very  strong  built  and  a  large  draught  of  water,  possessing  in  a 
greater  degree  the  character  of  sea-boats  than  any  of  those  be- 
longing to  the  other  two  classes.  They  also  differ  in  having  masts 
and  sails,  with  which  the  others  are  not  provided. 

"  The  steamboats  employed  on  the  Hudson  river  are  the  first, 
belonging  to  the  class  of  vessels  navigating  the  Eastern  waters,  of 
which  I  shall  make  particular  mention. 

"  The  shoals  in  the  upper  part  of  the  river,  produced  by  the 
Overslaugh,  have  rendered  it  necessary  that  the  steamboats  em- 
ployed  in  its  navigation  should  have  a  small  draught  of  water. 
The  great  trade  of  the  river,  and  the  crowds  of  passengers  which 
are  constantly  travelling  between  New  York  and  Albany  and  the 
intermediate  towns,  have  also  led  to  the  adoption  of  separate  lines 
of  boats,  one  for  towing  barges  loaded  with  goods,  and  another 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  conveyance  of  passengers.  The  attain, 
ment  of  great  speed  naturally  became  an  important  desideratum  in 
the  construction  of  the  vessels  employed  in  carrying  passengers  ; 
and  the  success  which  has  attended  the  efforts  of  the  steamboat 
builders  to  produce  vessels,  combining  swiftness  with  efficiency 
and  perfection  of  workmanship,  is  truly  wonderful,  and  in  the 
highest  degree  creditable. 

"  The  hulls  of  almost  all  the  American  steamboats,  especially 
those  which  ply  on  the  rivers,  carrying  no  freight  excepting  the 
luggage  belonging  to  passengers,  are  constructed  in  a  very  light 
and  superficial  manner.  They  are  built  perfectly  flat  in  the  bot- 
tom, and  perpendicular  in  the  sides ;  a  cross  section  in  the  middle 
of  the  vessel,  having  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  with  its  lower 
corners  rounded  off.  This  construction  of  hull  is  well  adapted  to 
a  navigation  where  the  depth  of  water  is  small,  and  the  attainment 
of  great  speed  is  an  object  of  importance,  as  it  ensures  a  smaller 
draught  of  water,  and  consequently  affords  less  resistance  to  the 


420  ANECDOTES, 

motion  of  the  vessel  than  any  other  mould  which  has  an  equal  area 
of  cross  section  below  the  water  line  ;  but  vessels  built  in  this  way, 
without  a  deep  keel,  having  no  hold  of  the  water,  are  not  well 
adapted  for  making  sea  voyages,  as  they  cannot  resist  the  effect 
of  the  wind,  which  causes  them  to  make  lee-way.  It  is  only  the 
great  breadth  of  the  paddle-wheels  and  power  of  the  engines  which 
enables  the  American  boats  to  move  steadily  through  the  water. 
The  breadth  of  the  paddle-wheels  is,  in  fact,  so  much  additional 
breadth  added  to  the  beam  of  the  vessel ;  for  the  reaction  of  the 
float-boards  striking  the  water  tends,  in  some  measure,  to  counter- 
act any  tendency  that  the  vessel  may  have  to  roll,  which  would 
otherwise  be  very  apt  to  take  .place  in  the  American  steamers, 
where  the  machinery  and  boilers  are  placed  above  the  level  of  the 
deck.  There  is  no  rolling  motion  felt  in  these  fast  boats.  The 
rectilineal  motion,  however,  is  by  no  means  regular.  Every  stroke 
of  the  engine  produces  a  momentary  acceleration  in  the  speed, 
giving  rise  to  a  &ee-saw  motion,  resembling  that  of  a  row-boat,  in 
which  the  impulse  produced  by  every  stroke  of  the  oars  is  dis- 
tinctly felt. 

"  In  the  American  steamers  the  keel  generally  projects  from 
two  to  six  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  hull,  and  is  level  from 
stem  to  stern.  Its  principal  service,  when  the  projection  is  so 
small,  consists  in  strengthening  the  hull.  The  deck-lines  of  the 
hull,  in  general,  begin  to  fall  in  at  a  distance  of  a  few  feet  from 
the  middle  of  the  vessel.  They  approach  each  other  with  a  gentle 
curve,  towards  the  stern  and  bow,  where  they  meet,  and  are  con- 
nected by  the  stern-post  and  cutwater  of  the  vessel.  The  cutwater 
is  generally  perpendicular;  and  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  diverging 
from  it,  present  a  very  acute  angle  to  meet  the  resistance  offered 
by  the  water. 

"  The  speed  of  the  American  steamboats  has  excited  consider- 
able wonder  in  this  country ;  and  some  people  have  been  inclined 
to  doubt  the  accuracy  of  the  statements  that  have  frequently  been 
made  regarding  the  extraordinary  feats  performed  by  them.  Fast 
sailing  is  a  property  which  is  not  possessed  by  all  American  steam- 
boats ;  but  that  a  few  of  those  navigating  the  river  Hudson  and 
Long  Island  Sound  perform  their  voyages  safely  and  regularly, 
at  a  speed  which  far  surpasses  that  of  any  European  steamer 
hitherto  built,  every  impartial  person,  who  has  had  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  the  performances  of  the  vessels  in  both  countries,  must 
be  ready  to  admit. 

"  Some  difficulties  at  present  exist,  which  preclude  the  attain- 
ment of  more  than  an  approximation  in  ascertaining  the  maximum 
rate  at  which  the  steamboats  on  the  Hudson  are  capable  of  being 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  421 

propelled  in  still  water.  One  of  these  is  caused  by  the  currents 
of  the  flowing  and  ebbing  tide,  which  are  felt  as  far  as  Albany, 
and  whose  velocity  has  never  been  accurately  ascertained  ;  and 
the  other  by  the  doubt  that  exists  as  to  the  actual  distance  of  the 
route  between  New  York  and  Albany,  which  has  been  variously 
stated  at  from  145  to  160  miles. 

"  A  very  general  opinion  exists  in  America,  in  which  many 
persons  possessing  the  best  means  of  information  concur,  that 
the  fast  steamboats  in  that  country  can  be  propelled  at  the  rate 
of  eighteen  miles  an  hour  in  still  water,  a  feat  which  it  is  said  has 
of  late  been  often  performed.  I  cannot  vouch  for  the  accuracy  of 
this  statement,  however,  from  personal  experience  or  observation  ; 
but  this  I  can  state  positively,  that  the  average  length  of  time  oc- 
cupied by  the  steamers  in  making  the  voyage  from  New  York  to 
Albany  is  ten  hours,  exclusive  of  time  lost  in  making  stoppages, 
which,  taking  the  distance  at  150  miles,  gives  fifteen  miles  an  hour 
as  their  average  rate  of  motion. 

"  The  '  Rochester 1  and  the  '  Swallow '  were  said  to  be  the  two 
swiftest  boats  running  on  the  Hudson  in  1837.  I  made  a  trip 
from  Albany  to  New  York  in  the  '  Rochester,1  on  the  14th  of 
June  ;  on  which  occasion,  with  a  view  to  test  the  vessel's  speed, 
I  carefully  noted  the  hour  of  departure  from  Albany,  the  times  of 
touching  at  the  several  towns  and  landing  places  on  the  river,  with 
the  reputed  distances  between  them,  the  number  of  minutes  lost  at 
each  place,  and  the  hour  of  arrival  at  New  York.  Thirteen  stop- 
pages, which  I  found  to  average  three  minutes  each,  were  made  to 
land  and  take  on  board  passengers.  The  '  Rochester '  performed 
the  voyage  in  ten  hours  and  forty  minutes.  From  this,  thirty-nine 
minutes  must  be  deducted  for  the  time  lost  in  making  the  thirteen 
stoppages,  which  leaves  ten  hours  and  one  minute  as  the  time 
during  which  the  vessel  was  actually  occupied  in  running  from 
Albany  to  New  York.  Assuming  the  distance  between  those 
places  to  be  150  miles,  the  average  speed  of  the  vessel  throughout 
the  trip  was  14.97  miles  per  hour;  but  even  if  we  assume  the 
distance  to  be  only  145  miles,  (the  shortest  distance  I  have  ever 
heard  stated,)  which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  is  too  small, 
the  average  rate  is  still  14.47  mites  per  hour,  the  difference  of  five 
miles  in  the  length  of  the  route,  producing  a  diminution  in  the 
vessel's  average  rate  of  sailing  of  but  half  a  mile  per  hour.  The 
current  was  in  the  '  Rochester's '  favor  during  the  first  part  of  the 
voyage,  but  the  Overslaugh  shoals,  and  the  contracted  and  narrow 
state  of  the  navigable  channel  of  the  river  for  about  thirty  miles 
below  Albany,  checked  her  progress  very  much ;  and,  conse- 
quently, for  the  first  twenty-seven  miles  her  speed  was  only  12.36 

30* 


422-  ANECDOTES, 

miles  per  hour.  This  was  her  average  rate  of  sailing  during  the 
part  of  her  course  when  her  speed  was  slowest.  After  the  first 
thirty  miles  the  river  expanded,  affording  a  better  navigable  chan- 
nel, when  her  speed  gradually  increased,  and  before  the  flowing 
tide  checked  her  progress  the  vessel  attained  the  maximum  velocity 
indicated  by  my  observations,  which,  between  two  of  the  stopping 
places,  was  16.55  miles  per  hour.  When  going  at  this  speed,  it 
is  possible  that  she  was  influenced  by  some  slight  degree  of  cur 
rent  in  her  favor,  although  it  was  quite  imperceptible  to  the  eye, 
as  the  flow  of  the  tide  appeared  to  produce  a  stagnation  in  the 
water  of  the  river.  At  West  Point  we  encountered  the  flood  tide, 
as  was  very  distinctly  proved  by  the  swinging  of  the  vessels  which 
lay  at  anchor  in  the  river.  After  this  we  had  an  adverse  current 
all  the  way  to  New  York,  a  distance  of  about  fifty  miles,  and  the 
vessel's  speed  during  this  part  of  the  voyage  averaged  14.22  miles 
an  hour.  About  one  half  of  the  voyage  was  thus  performed  with 
a  favorable  current,  and  the  other  half,  was  performed  under  unfa- 
vorable  circumstances,  owing  partly  to  the  shallowness  of  the  water 
and  the  narrowness  of  the  channel  in  the  upper  part  of  the  river, 
and  partly  to  an  adverse  tide  in  the  lower  part  of  it.  When  the 
Rochester  is  pitched  against  another  vessel  and  going  at  her  full 
speed,  her  piston  makes  twenty-seven  double  strokes  per  minute 
On  the  voyage  above  alluded  to,  however,  the  piston,  on  an- aver- 
age, made  about  twenty-five  double  strokes  per  minute,  so  that  the 
speed  of  14.97  miles  per  hour,  which  she  attained  on  that  occasion, 
cannot  be  taken  as  her  greatest  ordinary  rate  of  sailing.  During 
the  time,  however,  at  which  her  speed  was  16.55  miles  per  hour, 
her  piston  was  making  twenty-seven  double  strokes  per  minute, 
and  at  that  time  the  vessel  could  not  be  far  from  having  attained 
the  maximum  speed  at  which  her  engines  are  capable  of  propelling 
her  through  the  water. 

"  The  rate  of  sixteen  and  a  half  miles  an  hour  is  very  great,  but 
perhaps  not  more  than  is  due  to  the  form  of  the  vessels,  and  the 
power  of  the  engines  by  which  they  are  propelled.  The  Roches- 
ter draws  only  four  feet  of  water,  but  the  power  of  her  engine  is 
greater  than  that  of  any  steamer  in  this  countiy.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  American  marine  engines  is  so  different  from  that 
adopted  in  Europe,  that  it  is  doubtful  if  the  same  rule  for  calcu- 
lating the  power  is  applicable  in  both  cases. 

"  The  disturbance  created  by  the  passage  of  the  fast  American 
steamers  through  the  water  is  exceedingly  small.  The  water,  at 
the  distance  of  twelve  inches  in  front  of  their  bows,  presents  a 
perfectly  smooth  and  untroubled  surface.  A  thin  sheet  of  spray, 
composed  of  small  globules  of  water,  from  a  sixteenth  to  an 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  423 

eighteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  rises  nearly  perpendicularly  in 
front  of  the  cutwater  to  the  height  of  three,  and,  in  some  cases 
which  I  have  observed,  as  much  as  four  feet,  and  falls  again  into 
the  water  on  each  side  of  the  vessel.  There  is  little  or  no  com. 
motion  at  the  stern ;  and  the  diverging  waves  which  invariably 
follow  the  steamers  in  this  country,  and  break  on  the  banks  of  our 
rivers  with  considerable  violence,  are  not  produced  by  the  fast 
boats  in  America.  The  waves  in  their  wake  are  very  slight,  and, 
as  far  as  I  could  judge,  seem  to  be  nearly  parallel ;  and  the  marks 
of  the  vessel's  course  cannot  be  traced  to  any  great  distance. 
These  facts  are  quite  in  accordance  with  the  result  of  some  of 
Mr.  Russell's  experiments,  by  which  he  was  led  to  conclude  that 
1  the  commotion  produced  in  a  fluid  by  a  vessel  moving  through 
it,  is  much  greater  at  velocities  less  than  the  velocity  of  the  wave,1 
(which  is  proportioned  to  the  depth  of  the  water,)  '  than  at  veloci- 
ties which  are  greater  than  it.' 

"  The  vast  number  of  vessels  on  the  Western  waters,  the  pecu- 
liarity of  their  construction,  and  the  singular  nature  of  the  naviga- 
tion in  which  they  are  employed,  make  them  objects  of  consider- 
able interest  to  the  traveller.  We  must  not  expect  to  find,  how- 
ever, in  that  class  of  vessels,  the  same  display  of  good  workman- 
ship, and  the  attainment  of  the  high  velocities,  which  characterize 
the  vessels  on  the  Eastern  waters.  These  qualifications  may  be 
very  easily  dispensed  with,  and  the  want  of  them  is  by  no  means 
the  worst  feature  in  the  western  navigation ;  but,  what  is  of  far 
more  importance,  too  many  of  the  vessels  are  decidedly  unsafe ; 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  their  management  is  intrusted  to  men 
whose  recklessness  of  human  life  and  property  is  equalled  only  by 
their  ignorance  and  want  of  civilization. 

"  Economy  would  indeed  seem  to  be  the  only  object  which  the 
constructors  of  these  boats  have  in  view,  and  therefore,  with  the 
exception  of  the  finery  which  the  cabins  generally  display,  little 
care  is  expended  in  their  construction,  and  much  of  the  workman- 
ship connected  with  them  is  of  a  most  superficial  and  insufficient 
kind.  When  the  crews  of  these  frail  fabrics,  therefore,  engage  in 
brisk  competition  with  other  vessels,  and  urge  the  machinery  to 
the  utmost  extent  of  its  power,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
their  exertions  are  often  suddenly  terminated  by  the  vessel  taking 
fire,  and  going  to  the  bottom,  or  by  an  explosion  of  the  steam- 
boilers.  Such  accidents  are  frequently  attended  with  an  appalling 
loss  of  life,  and  are  of  so  common  occurrence,  that  they  generally 
excite  little  or  no  attention. 

"  The  vessels  on  the  Western  waters  vary  from  100  to  700  tons 
burden,  and  are  generally  of  a  heavy  built,  to  enable  them  to  carry 


424  ANECDOTES, 

goods.  They  have  a  most  singular  appearance,  and  are  no  less 
remarkable  as  regards  their  machinery.  They  are  built  flat  in  the 
bottom,  and  generally  draw  from  six  to  eight  feet  of  water.  The 
hull  is  covered  with  a  deck  at  the  level  of  about  five  feet  above  the 
water,  and  below  this  deck  is  the  hold,  in  which  the  heavy  part  of 
the  cargo  is  carried.  The  whole  of  the  machinery  rests  on  the 
first  deck  ;  the  engines  being  placed  near  the  middle  of  the  vessel, 
and  the  boilers  under  the  two  smoke  chimneys.  The  fire-doors 
open  towards  the  bow,  and  the  bright  glare  of  light  thrown  out  by 
the  wood  fires,  along  with  the  puffing  of  the  steam  from  the  escape- 
ment pipe,  produce  a  most  singular  effect  at  night,  and  serve  the 
useful  purpose  of  announcing  the  approach  of  the  vessel  when  it  is 
still  at  a  great  distance.  The  chief  object  in  placing  the  boilers 
in  the  manner  described,  is  to  produce  a  strong  draught  in  the 
fire-place.  The  other  end  of  the  lower  deck,  which  is  covered 
in,  and  occupied  by  the  crew  of  the  vessel  and  the  deck  passen- 
gers, generally  presents  a  scene  of  filth  and  wretchedness  that 
baffles  all  description.  A  staircase  leads  from  the  front  of  the 
paddle-boxes  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  to  an  upper  gallery  about 
three  feet  in  breadth.  This  surrounds  the  whole  after-part  of  the 
vessel,  and  is  the  promenade  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  second  deck. 
Several  doors  lead  from  the  gallery  into  the  great  cabin,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  funnels  to  within  about  thirty  or  forty  feet  of  the 
stern  of  the  vessel ;  the  aftermost  space  is  separated  from  the 
great  cabin  by  a  partition,  and  is  occupied  by  the  ladies.  The 
large  cabin  contains  the  gentlemen's  sleeping  berths,  and  is  also 
used  as  the  dining-room.  This  part  of  the  western  steamers  is 
often  fitted  up  in  a  gorgeous  style ;  the  berths  are  large,  and  the 
numerous  windows  by  which  the  cabin  is  surrounded  give  abun- 
dance of  light,  and,  what  is  of  great  consequence  in  that  scorching 
climate,  admit  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  air. 

"  From  the  gallery  surrounding  the  chief  cabin,  two  flights  of 
steps  lead  to  the  hurricane  deck,  which,  in  many  of  the  steamers, 
is  at  least  thirty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water.  The  wheel- 
house,  in  which  the  steersman  is  placed,  is  erected  on  the  forepart 
of  this  deck,  and  the  motion  is  communicated  to  the  helm  by  means 
of  ropes  or  iron  rods,  in  the  manner  already  described  in  speaking 
of  the  Eastern  steamers. 

"  The  first  cabin  of  a  Mississippi  steamboat  is  strangely  con- 
trasted with  the  scenes  of  wretchedness  in  the  lower  deck,  and  its 
splendor  serves  in  some  measure  to  distract  the  attention  of  its 
unthinking  inmates  from  the  dangers  which  lie  below  them.  But 
no  one  who  is  at  all  acquainted  with  the  steam  engine  can  examine 
the  machinery  of  one  of  those  vessels,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  425 

is  managed,  without  shuddering  at  the  idea  of  the  great  risk  to 
which  all  on  board  are  at  every  moment  exposed. 

"  Explosions  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence  ;  and,  with  a  view 
to  cure  this  evil,  several  attempts  have,  at  different  periods,  been 
made  to .  introduce  low-pressure  engines  on  the  Western  waters, 
but  the  cheapness  of  high-pressure  engines,  and  the  great  simpli- 
city of  their  parts,  which  require  comparatively  little  fine  finishing 
and  good  fitting,  certainly  afford  reasons  for  preferring  them  to 
low-pressure  engines,  in  a  part  of  the  country  where  good  work- 
men  are  scarce,  and  where  the  value  of  labor  and  materials  is 
very  great.  It  must  also  be  recollected,  that  a  condensing  or  low. 
pressure  engine  takes  up  a  great  deal  more  space  than  one  con- 
structed  on  the  high-pressure  principle.  I  do  not  apprehend,  how- 
ever,  that  the  number  of  accidents  would  be  diminished  by  the 
simple  adoption  of  low-pressure  boilers,  without  the  strict  enforce- 
ment of  judicious  regulations  ;  and  if  those  regulations  were  prop- 
erly applied  to  high-pressure  boilers,  they  would  not  fail  to  render 
them,  perhaps,  quite  as  safe  as  those  boilers  which  are  generally 
made  for  engines  working  on  the  low-pressure  principle.  One 
very  obvious  improvement  on  the  present  hazardous  state  of  the 
Mississippi  navigation,  would  be  the  enactment  of  a  law  that  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  should  in  no  case  exceed,  perhaps,  fifty 
pounds  on  the  square  inch. 

"  The  steamers  make  many  stoppages  to  take  in  goods  and 
passengers,  and  also  supplies  of  wood  for  fuel.  The  liberty  which 
they  take  with  their  vessels  on  these  occasions  is  somewhat 
amusing,  and  not  a  little  hazardous.  I  had  a  good  example  of  this 
on  board  of  a  large  vessel  called  the  Ontario.  She  was  sheered 
close  inshore  among  stones  and  stumps  of  trees,  where  she  lay  for 
some  hours  taking  in  goods.  The  additional  weight  increased  her 
draught  of  water,  and  caused  her  to  heel  a  good  deal ;  and  when 
her  engines  were  put  in  motion,  she  actually  crawled  into  the  deep 
water  on  her  paddle-wheels.  The  steam  had  been  got  up  to  an 
enormous  pressure  to  enable  her  to  get  off,  and  the  volumes  of 
steam,  discharged  from  the  escapement  pipe  at  every  half  stroke 
of  the  piston  made  a  sharp  sound  almost  like  the  discharge  of  fire- 
arms, while  every  timber  in  the  vessel  seemed  to  tremble,  and  the 
whole  structure  actually  groaned  under  the  shocks. 

"  During  these  stoppages,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  up  a  proper 
supply  of  water  to  prevent  explosion ;  and  the  manner  in  which 
this  is  effected  on  the  Mississippi  is  very  simple.  The  paddle- 
wheel  axle  is  so  constructed,  that  the  portions  of  it  projecting  over 
the  hull  of  the  vessel  to  which  the  wheels  are  fixed  can  be  thrown 
out  of  gear  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  clutch  on  each  side  of  the 


426.  ANECDOTES, 

vessel,  which  slides  on  the  intermediate  part  of  the  axle,  and  is 
acted  on  by  a  lever.  When  the  vessel  is  stopped,  the  paddle, 
wheels  are  simply  thrown  out  of  gear,  and  the  engine  continues 
to  work.  The  necessary  supply  of  water  is  thus  pumped  into  the 
boiler  during  the  whole  time  that  the  vessel  may  be  at  rest ;  and 
when  she  is  required  to  get  under  weigh,  the  wheels  are  again 
thrown  into  gear,  and  revolve  with  the  paddle-wheel  shaft.  The 
fly-wheel  is  useful  in  regulating  the  motion  of  the  engine,  which 
otherwise  might  be  apt  to  suffer  damage  from  the  increase  and 
diminution  in  the  resistance  offered  to  the  motion  of  the  pistons, 
by  suddenly  throwing  the  paddle-wheels  into  and  out  of  gear.  The 
water  for  the  supply  of  the  engine  is  first  pumped  into  a  heater, 
in  which  its  temperature  is  raised,  and  is  then  injected  into  the 
boiler. 

"  I  saw  several  vessels  on  the  Ohio  which  were  propelled  by 
one  large  paddle-wheel  placed  at  the  stern  of  the  vessel,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  this  arrangement  is  advantageous,  as  the  action 
of  the  paddle-wheel,  when  placed  in  that  situation,  must  be  im- 
peded by  the  float-boards  impinging  on  water  which  has  been  dis- 
turbed by  the  passage  of  the  vessel  through  it. 

"  The  third  class  of  vessels  to  which  I  have  alluded,  are  those 
which  navigate  the  lakes  and  the  river  St.  Lawrence.  They  differ 
very  materially  from  those  I  have  already  described,  being  more 
like  the  steamers  of  this  country,  both  in  their  construction  and 
appearance.  Steamboats  were  first  used  on  the  St.  Lawrence  in 
1812,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  were  also  introduced  on  the 
lakes  about  the  same  time.  The  lake  steamers  are  strongly  built 
vessels,  furnished  with  masts  and  sails,  and  propelled  by  powerful 
engines,  some  of  which  act  on  the  high-pressure  and  some  on  the 
low-pressure  principle." 


Simple  Origin  of  Important  Discoveries. 

It  is  certain,  says  Pliny,  that  the  most  valuable  discoveries  have 
found  their  orign  in  the  most  trivial  accidents.  As  some  merchants 
were  carrying  nitre,  they  stopped  near  a  river  which  issues  from 
Mount  Carmel,  and  not  happening  to  find  stones  for  resting  their 
kettles,  they  substituted  in  their  place  some  pieces  of  nitre,  which 
the  fire  gradually  dissolving,  mixed  with  the  sand,  and  occasioned 
a  transparent  matter  to  flow,  which,  in  fact,  was  nothing  else  but 
glass. 

It  is  said  that  the  use  of  telescopes  was  first  discovered  by  one 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  427 

Hansen,  a  spectacle-maker,  at  Middleburgh,  in  Holland,  whose 
children  playing  in  the  shop,  casually  placed  a  convex  and  con- 
cave glass  in  such  a  manner,  that,  by  looking  through  them  at  the 
weathercock,  they  observed  it  appeared  much  larger  and  nearer 
than  usual,  and,  by  their  expressions  of  surprise,  excited  the  at- 
tention  of  their  father,  who  soon  obtained  great  credit  for  this  use- 
ful  discovery. 

Heylin,  in  his  cosmography,  tells  us  that  the  art  of  steering  was 
discovered  by  a  man  of  the  name  of  Typhis,  who  took  his  hints 
for  making  both  the  rudder  and  helm  from  seeing  a  kite,  in  flying, 
guide  her  whole  body  by  her  tail. 


Invention  of  the  Safety  Lamp. 

This  lamp,  by  means  of  which  hundreds  of  lives  have  been  pre- 
served, was  invented  in  the  autumn  of  1815.  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
the  inventor,  was  led  to  the  consideration  of  this  subject,  by  an 
application  from  Dr.  Gray,  now  Bishop  of  Bristol,  the  chairman 
of  a  society  established  in  1813,  at  Bishop-  Wearmouth,  to  consider 
and  promote  the  means  of  preventing  accidents  by  fire  in  coal-pits. 
Being  then  in  Scotland,  he  visited  the  mines  on  his  return  south- 
ward, and  was  supplied  with  specimens  of  fire-damp,  which,  on 
reaching  London,  he  proceeded  to  examine  and  analyze.  He  soon 
discovered  that  the  carburetted  hydrogen  gas,  called  fire-damp  by 
the  miners,  would  not  explode  when  mixed  with  less  than  six,  or 
more  than  fourteen,  times  its  volume  of  air  ;  and  further,  that  the 
explosive  mixture  could  not  be  fired  in  tubes  of  small  diameters 
and  proportionate  lengths.  Gradually  diminishing  these,  he  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  a  tissue  of  wire  in  which  the  meshes  do  not 
exceed  a  certain  small  diameter,  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
ultimate  limit  of  a  series  of  such  tubes,  is  impervious  to  the  inflamed 
air ;  and  that  a  lamp  covered  with  such  tissue  may  be  used  with 
perfect  safety,  even  in  an  explosive  mixture  which  takes  fire  and 
burns  within  the  cage,  securely  cut  off*  from  the  power  of  doing 
harm.  Thus,  when  the  atmosphere  is  so  impure  that  the  flame  of 
a  lamp  itself  cannot  be  maintained,  the  Davy  still  supplies  light  to 
the  miner,  and  turns  his  worst  enemy  into  an  obedient  servant. 
This  invention,  the  certain  source  of  large  profit,  he  presented  with 
characteristic  liberality  to  the  public.  The  words  are  preserved  in 
which,  when  pressed  to  secure  to  himself  the  benefit  of  a  patent, 
he  declined  to  do  so,  in  conformity  with  the  high-minded  resolution 
which  he  formed,  upon  acquiring  independent  wealth,  of  never 


428  ANECDOTES, 

making  his  scientific  eminence  subservient  to  gain.  "I  have 
enough  for  all  my  views  and  purposes ;  more  wealth  might  be 
troublesome,  and  distract  my  attention  from  those  pursuits  in  which 
I  delight.  More  wealth  could  not  increase  my  fame  or  happiness. 
It  might  undoubtedly  enable  me  to  put  four  horses  to  my  carriage ; 
but  what  would  it  avail  me  to  have  it  said  that  Sir  Humphry  drives 
his  carriage  and  four  ?" 

Like  most  individuals  of  worth,  Davy  was  a  man  of  true  modesty, 
and  in  his  dress  and  manners  very  simple.  Volta,  to  whom  he  was 
introduced  at  Pavia,  had  attired  himself  in  full  dress  to  receive  him, 
but  is  said  to  have  started  back  with  astonishment,  on  seeing  the 
English  philosopher  make  his  appearance  in  a  dress  of  which  an 
English  artisan  would  have  been  ashamed.  The  following  anec- 
dote is  told  of  him  :  whilst  staying  for  the  night  at  a  small  inn  in 
North  Wales,  with  his  friend  Mr.  Purkis,  a  third  traveller  entered 
into  conversation  with  both,  and,  as  happened,  talked  very  learnedly 
about  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and  other  matters  relative  to  chemical 
science.  When  Davy,  who  had  listened  with  great  composure,  had 
retired  to  rest,  Mr.  Purkis  asked  the  stranger,  what  he  thought  of 
his  friend  who  had  just  left  him.  "  He  appears,"  coolly  replied  the 
other,  "  rather  a  clever  young  man,  with  some  general  scientific 
knowledge  :— ^pray  what  is  his  name  ?"  "  Humphry  Davy,  of  the 
Royal  Institution,11  coolly  replied  the  other.  "  Good  heavens  I11 
exclaimed  the  stranger,  "  was  that  really  Davy  ?— how  have  I  ex- 
posed my  ignorance  and  presumption !" 


The  Thames  Tunnel 

As  far  back  as  the  year  1802,  a  project  was  set  on  foot  -by 
some  enterprising  gentlemen,  with  a  view  of  opening  an  archway 
under  the  Thames,  between  Rotherhithe  and  Limehouse,  not  far 
from  the  line  of  the  present  tunnel.  The  engineer  selected  for 
this  enterprise  was  particularly  qualified  for  such  an  undertaking, 
being  an  experienced  Cornish  miner.  Having  made  some  borings 
at  the  Horse-ferry  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  he  re- 
ported that  "  he  was  firmly  persuaded  the  undertaking  would  not 
cost  so  much  as  had  been  conceived.11  A  subscription  was,  in 
consequence,  raised ;  and  a  company  was  formed,  under  the 
denomination  of  the  "  Thames  Archway  Company.11  Surveys, 
plans,  and  estimates  were  made,  and  an  act  of  parliament  being 
obtained,  the  work  was  begun.  The  engineer  commenced  opera- 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  429 

tions  by  sinking  a  shaft  of  eleven  feet  diameter,  at  three  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  from  the  line  of  the  wharf  on  the  Rotherhithe  side. 
But  the  obstacles  which  he  encountered  from  the  nature  of  the 
ground  increased  to  such  a  degree,  as  he  proceeded,  that  at  the 
depth  of  forty-two  feet  he  was  obliged  to  desist.  A  subsequent 
report  of  borings,  however,  having  proved  very  favorable,  an  en- 
terprising  proprietor  engaged  to  complete  the  shaft  (reduced  to 
eight  feet  diameter)  to  seventy-six  feet,  at  which  depth  it  was  dis- 
covered that  it  would  be  dangerous  to  go  deeper.  At  this  stage 
of  the  proceedings,  viz.,  in  August,  1807,  a  second  engineer  was 
engaged  by  the  company,  a  gentleman  whose  name  had  been 
coupled  with  very  great  enterprises  in  the  mining  department. 
Before  opening  the  drift-way,  both  engineers  agreed  to  reduce  its 
breadth  to  two  feet  six  inches  at  the  top,  and  three  feet  at  the  bot- 
tom. At  the  depth  of  seventy-six  feet  they  found  the  ground  to 
consist  of  a  firm  dry  sand ;  and  there  they  opened  the  drift,  which 
they  carried  forward  in  a  gentle  ascent.  In  November,  1807, 
when  three  hundred  and  ninety -four  feet  of  the  drift  had  been 
completed,  the  services  of  the  first  engineer  were  dispensed  with, 
after  four  years  and  a  half  of  hard  labor.  The  directors  then 
agreed  to  give  the  second  engineer  £1,000,  by  way  of  premium, 
if  he  succeeded  in  reaching  the  opposite  shore.  The  drift  was 
further  extended  to  eight  hundred  and  fourteen  feet,  through 
equally  firm  dry  ground,  with  the  precaution,  which  had  been  em- 
ployed  from  the  beginning,  of  a  substantial  planking  all  the  way. 
One  hundred  and  thirty-eight  feet  more  were  cut  through  a  bed 
of  calcareous  rock  eight  feet  thick.  But  on  the  21st  of  December, 
the  head  of  the  drift  had  hardly  entered  two  feet  into  the  stratum, 
which  lay  immediately  over  the  rock,  when  the  roof  broke  down 
in  a  loose  state,  leaving  above  head  a  cavity  large  enough  for  a 
man  to  stand  in  it.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  there  was  no  less 
than  thirty  feet  of  intervening  ground  between  the  drift  and  the 
river  at  the  time  this  accident  happened.  The  engineer  succeeded 
in  filling  and  securing  the  cavity  ;  but,  such  was  the  nature  of  the 
whole  ground  above  the  rock,  that,  under  the  influence  of  an  extra- 
ordinary high  tide,  (on  the  26th  of  January,  1808,)  the  ground 
again  made  its  way  fast  in  a  loose  state  into  the  drift,  and  the 
river  soon  broke  through  twenty-five  feet  of  ground.  This  same 
tide  caused  the  destruction  of  the  Deptford  and  Lewisham  bridges. 
The  engineer  having  succeeded  in  filling  and  closing  this  hole, 
the  miners  re-entered  the  drift,  which  was  reduced  to  three  feet 
in  height,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  dangerous  place.  The 
miners  had  therefore,  to  work  on  their  knees  :  however,  notwith- 

31 


430  ANECDOTES, 

standing  every  effort  to  attain  the  opposite  shore,  they  were  driven 
away  by  the  frequent  bursts  of  sand  and  water.  The  engineer 
having  afterwards  sounded  the  ground  from  above,  reported  that 
he  had  no  doubt  the  two  fractures  communicated  underneath ; 
and  therefore  admitted  that  it  was  quite  impracticable  to  go  fur- 
ther  except  by  means  of  a  coffer-dam  or  caissons.  On  the  30th 
of  March,  1809,  the  directors  offered  a  reward  for  the  most  ap- 
proved plan  of  completing  the  archway.  Fifty-four  plans  having 
been  obtained  by  this  announcement,  they  were  referred  to  the 
opinion  of  scientific  men.  These  gentlemen  reported  that  they 
were  unanimously  of  opinion,  that  an  archway,  of  any  useful  size, 
was  impracticable  under  the  Thames  by  an  underground  excava- 
tion on  any  of  the  plans  that  had  come  before  them ;  observing, 
at  the  same  time,  that  they  did  not  pretend  to  assign  limits  to  the 
ingenuity  of  other  men.  A  further  trial  was  made  by  a  third  en- 
gineer, who  operated  from  above  the  river,  but  it  proved  equally 
fruitless.  Thus  ended,  in  1809,  all  the  exertions  and  the  efforts 
made  during  nearly  seven  years,  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing 
an  archway  under  the  bed  of  the  Thames ;  at  the  end  of  which 
period  not  so  much  as  a  drain  had  been  completed,  nor  had  the 
miners  succeeded  in  working  in  any  of  those  strata  wherein  the 
excavation  for  the  archway  must  eventually  have  been  effected. 

Several  years  afterwards,  Mr.  Brunei  was  prevailed  upon  by 
one  of  the  most  active  promoters  of  the  archway  enterprise  (Mr. 
J.  Wyatt)  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  subject ;  and,  being  furnished 
with  the  documents  connected  with  the  first  attempt,  he  devised 
his  plan  with  the  impression  that  both  the  excavation  and  the 
structure  might  be  made  on  a  full  scale  at  once. 

Before  proceeding  to  an  exposition  of  the  plan  adopted  by  Mr. 
Brunei,  and  of  the  means  by  which  he  has  carried  it  into  execu- 
tion, we  have  to  state  that  the  structure  of  the  Thames  Tunnel, 
as  represented  in  the  annexed  view,  is  thirty-eight  feet  in  width, 
and  twenty-two  feet  six  inches  in  height,  externally ;  and  that  a 
length  of  six  hundred  feet,  in  the  style  of  a  double  arcade,  has 
been  made,  though  one  arch  only  is  open  to  public  inspection. 
The  excavation,  therefore,  made  under  the  Thames  for  this  struc- 
ture presents  a  sectional  surface  of  eight  hundred  and  fifty  feet, 
which  is  equal  to  sixty  times  the  area  of  the  drift.  At  high  water, 
the  head  of  the  river  is  about  seventy-five  feet  above  the  foot  of  the 
excavation,  and  consequently  three  times  the  height  of  that  room. 
These  circumstances,  independently  of  the  nature  of  the  ground, 
are  sufficient  to  place  the  work  of  the  Thames  Tunnel  among  the 
boldest  enterprises  in  the  art  of  engineering. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  first  attempt  had  contributed  to  dis- 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  431 

courage  all  idea  of  success,  there  were  still  sufficient  evidences  to 
indicate  that  by  beginning  in  the  stratum  of  dry  firm  sand,  and 
keeping  close  under  the  stratum  of  clay  forming  the  bottom  of 
the  river,  there  was  space  enough  to  effect  the  object,  although 
the  nature  of  the  intervening  ground  had  been  ascertained  to  be 
very  loose  in  many  places.  All  the  information  obtained  from 
the  miner's  report  concurred  with  the  opinions  of  geologists  in 
pointing  out  that  the  most  eligible  line  for  the  Tunnel  was  to  keep 
as  near  to  the  bottom  of  the  river  as  the  security  of  the  work 
would  permit.  The  first  idea  of  the  plan  which  appeared  to  the 
engineer  best  calculated  for  making  an  excavation  fit  for  the  ob- 
ject under  so  overwhelming  a  head  of  water,  was  suggested  by 
the  sight  of  a  piece  of  a  keel  of  a  ship  which  had  been  eroded 
by  the  operation  of  the  worm  called  the  terido.  From  this  he 
conceived  it  practicable,  as  his  specification  describes  it,  to  make 
a  circular  opening  of  sufficient  capacity  at  once.  However,  of 
the  two  modes  which  he  described,  he  gave  the  preference  to  that 
of  proceeding  by  forming,  simultaneously,  several  contiguous  ex- 
cavations by  means  of  an  apparatus  which  has  been  denominated 
the  shield.  This  shield,  upon  the  whole,  partakes  of  the  character 
of  a  powerful  coffer-dam,  applied  in  a  horizontal  instead  of  the  ver- 
tical direction.  It  consists  of  twelve  parallel  frames  lying  close  to- 
each  other,  like  so  many  volumes  in  a  bookcase.  Each  frame, 
being  nearly  twenty-two  feet  in  height,  is  divided  into  three  stories: 
the  whole  presents  therefore  thirty-six  openings  or  cells.  It  is 
from  these  cells  that  the  miners,  operating  by  small  quantities  at 
a  time,  like  so  many  teridos,  are  able  to  dig  the  ground  in  front, 
while  others  at  the  back  bring  up  the  brick  structure.  For  loco- 
motive action  each  frame  is  provided  with  two  substantial  legs 
resting  on  equally  substantial  shoes,  (not  unlike  snow-shoes ;) 
these  legs  are  provided  with  joints,  that  fit  the  frames  for  a  pacing 
movement.  The  shield  has  been  pushed  forward  six  hundred 
feet  of  its  assigned  career ;  and  has  left  behind  a  substantial  struc- 
ture in  the  form  of  a  double  arcade. 

With  regard  to  the  external  form  of  the  structure,  and  the  mode 
adopted  for  its  execution,  it  must  be  obvious  to  persons  acquainted 
with  such  matters,  that  the  most  substantial  form,  and  the  best 
calculated  at  the  same  time  to  prevent,  as  far  as  practicable,  any 
derangement  in  alluvial  strata  of  various  degrees  of  density,  is  the 
square  form,  as  corresponding  with  that  mode  of  building  which 
is  technically  called  underjoining  and  underlaying.  Thus,  in  fact, 
the  bed  of  the  river,  with  its  contents,  has  been  underlayed  to 
receive  the  superstructure. 

An  indispensable  requisite  in  a  work  of  this  nature  was,  that  it 


432  ANECDOTES, 

should  be  made  proof  against  the  greatest  disasters  that  were  to 
be  apprehended,  notwithstanding  every  precaution  that  could  be 
taken.  Mr.  BruneFs  plan  was  considered  by  his  grace  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  by  Dr.  Wallaston,  and  by  those  engineers  and 
scientific  men  who  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  the  designs, 
and  of  hearing  the  description  given  by  the  engineer,  as  being 
well  calculated  to  accomplish  the  contemplated  object,  although 
some  apprehensions  were  raised  at  the  time  as  to  what  might  re- 
sult from  so  formidable  an  occurrence  as  an  irruption  of  the  river, 
considering  the  extent  of  the  devastation  it  might  cause  in  the 
ground  and  among  the  works.  The  engineer  afforded  such  ex- 
planations as  allayed,  in  some  degree,  those  apprehensions  which, 
it  must  be  admitted,  he  has  since  completely  dispelled  by  unde- 
niable facts. 

It  was  under  these  auspices  that  the  plan  was  brought  "before 
the  public  in  1823,  and  that  in  the  month  of  February,  1824,  sub. 
scriptions  were  obtained  to  a  large  amount  to  carry  it  into  effect, 
notwithstanding  the  novelty  of  the  scheme,  and  its  risks. 

The  company  having  been  incorporated  in  1824  by  an  act  of 
parliament,  the  work  was  begun  in  March,  1825.  A  shaft  fifty 
feet  diameter  was  constructed,  destined  to  form  ultimately  the 
descent  for  the  footways.  This  structure  was  in  the  first  instance 
laid  upon  piles,  and  raised  to  the  height  of  forty-two  feet,  includ- 
ing a  cast-iron  rim,  intended  to  act  as  a  cutter.  A  steam  engine 
of  thirty-horse  power  was  mounted  on  the  top  of  this  structure. 
In  this  state,  the  piles  being  removed,  this  tower  was  brought  to 
rest  upon  the  edge  of  the  cast-iron  rim.  It  is  easy  to  compre- 
hend, that,  by  clearing  the  ground  inside,  the  whole  must  have 
descended.  In  this  manner  a  structure,  weighing  about  twelve 
hundred  tons,  was  lowered  to  the  depth  of  forty  feet,  through  a 
stratum  twenty-six  feet  deep,  consisting  of  gravel  and  sand  full  of 
water,  wherein  the  drift-makers  had  met  with  almost  insurmount- 
able obstacles.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  for  this,  and  for  the 
whole  operation  of  the  Tunnel,  the  engineer  did  not  employ  a 
larger  steam  engine  than  had  been  required  in  the  operations  of 
the  drift-way.  As  the  body  of  the  Tunnel  was  to  be  opened  at 
the  depth  of  forty  feet,  the  shaft  was  continued  to  sixty-four  feet, 
by  underlaying,  leaving  the  space  in  the  side  open  for  the  hori- 
zontal work.  A  well,  or  cistern,  twenty-five  feet  diameter,  was 
further  made  at  the  bottom  of  this  shaft,  for  draining  the  ground ; 
but  in  sinking  it  a  quicksand  suddenly  burst  upon  the  work.  This 
event  confirmed  the  report  of  the  drift-makers,  and  of  the  geologists, 
as  to  the  existence  of  a  dangerous  bed  of  sand  at  about  eighty  to 
eighty-five  feet  from  the  level  of  high  water.  The  shield  destined 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTION    OF    THAMES    TUNNEL, 

Showing  its  course  under  the  river. 


VERTICAL    SECTION    OF    THAMES     TUNNEL, 

Exhibiting  the  method  of  conducting  the  work. 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  435 

to  precede  the  body  of  the  Tunnel,  was  put  up  at  the  depth  of  forty 
feet.  The  shield  consists  of  twelve  parallel  frames  twenty-two 
feet  high.  These  being  divided  into  three  stories,  present  toge- 
ther thirty-six  cells,  destined  for  the  working  of  the  men.  The 
whole  constitute  at  the  same  time  a  powerful  fence  against  the 
ground.  The  sides  and  the  top  are  lined  with  sliding  pieces,  cor- 
responding  with  the  sheet-piling  of  a  coffer-dam ;  and  at  the  bot- 
tom it  rests  upon  broad  shoes.  For  its  progressive  movement 
each  frame  is  provided  with  legs,  which  have  their  action  in  the 
lower  cells.  By  this  means  each  frame  can  be  moved  separately; 
but  the  whole  is  brought  forward  by  alternate  moves,  regulated 
by  the  progress  of  the  work.  Each  operator  provides  for  the 
security  of  his  own  cell,  by  covering  the  front  with  small  boards, 
technically  called  polings  ;  and,  as  the  miners  work  in  front,  the 
bricklayers  work  at  the  back  in  forming  the  structure,  as  shown 
in  the  adjoining  engraving. 

The  shield  was  entered  under  a  substantial  bed  of  clay,  and  its 
progress  began,  by  about  the  1st  of  January,  1826.  It  had  not 
advanced  above  nine  feet,  when  this  substantial  protection  was 
found  to  break  off  at  once,  leaving  the  work  open  to  a  considerable 
influx  of  water  and  of  fluid  sand ;  and  it  resulted  that  for  thirty- 
two  days  the  progress  was  extremely  slow  :  however,  by  the  14th 
of  March,  the  shield  was  brought  into  substantial  ground  again. 
From  that  day  to  the  14th  of  September  following,  two  hundred 
and  sixty  feet  of  tunnel  had  been  completed ;  when,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  run  of  ground  in  a  fluid  state,  a  cavity  was  discovered 
to  be  formed  above  the  head  of  the  shield.  A  remarkable 
occurrence  happened  on  that  day.  The  engineer  having  oc- 
casion to  meet  the  directors,  stated  to  them  that  at  the  head  of 
the  tide,  which  was  then  rising,  the  bottom  of  the  river  would, 
he  conceived,  break  down,  observing  at  the  same  time  that  every 
thing  was  prepared  to  meet  the  case.  The  accident  did  actually 
occur.  However,  though  this  was  the  first  occurrence  of  the  kind 
under  the  river,  the  miners  were  in  no  way  alarmed  on  hearing 
the  river  deposits  falling  over  the  head  of  the  shield,  accompanied 
with  a  burst  of  water.  The  cavity  soon  filled  itself,  and  with  ad- 
ditional precaution  the  work  was  continued.  An  occurrence 
somewhat  similar  to  the  preceding  one  took  place  on  the  18th  of 
October  following,  with  equal  success  in  its  consequences.  On 
the  2d  of  January  (1827)  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  tunnel 
had  been  made ;  when,  in  the  act  of  removing  one  of  the  poling- 
boards  which  cover  the  front  of  the  excavation,  some  loose  ground, 
of  the  consistency  of  tempered  clay,  impelled  by  the  weight  of  an 
extraordinary  high  tide;  made  its  way  with  an  almost  irresistible 

31* 


436  ANECDOTES, 

force ;  but,  with  the  auxiliary  means  which  had  been  provided  for 
emergencies  of  this  nature,  an  irruption  of  the  river  was  completely 
averted. 

The  influence  of  the  tide  upon  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  not  less 
than  thirty  feet,  was  a  circumstance  which  contributed  more  than 
any  other  to  multiply  the  difficulties,  and  to  give  them  an  awful 
character.  In  its  natural  state  the  ground  is  compact,  even  when 
it  consists  of  sand  or  of  gravel ;  but  in  consequence  of  an  excavation 
on  so  large  a  scale,  opening  new  vents  for  the  passage  or  emission 
of  water,  it  has  resulted  that  some  of  the  strata  have  been  decom- 
posed and  softened,  some  portions  have  become  even  liquid,  and 
others  have  been  kneaded  into  various  degrees  of  consistency. 
These  circumstances,  which  are  exemplified  in  the  three  preced- 
ing occurrences,  rendered  the  operations  excessively  complicated 
and  laborious.  Other  portions  of  the  strata,  consisting  of  round 
smooth  pebbles,  though  imbedded  in  some  adhesive  substances, 
were  occasionally  found  as  loose  as  chesnuts  in  a  cask.  It  re- 
sulted, from  the  concurrence  of  so  many  causes,  that  the  ground, 
at  the  foundations  in  particular,  instead  of  retaining  its  original 
state,  as  reported  by  the  drift-makers,  viz.,  a  dry  firm  ground, 
was  found  to  be  so  loose,  even  at  the  depth  of  several  feet,  that  it 
became  expedient  to  condense  the  ground  before  the  foundations 
could  be  laid  down.  This  was  effected  by  means  of  substantial 
planking,  compressed  with  a  power  exceeding  the  greatest  weight 
which  each  plank  was  computed  to  carry.  The  original  idea  of 
forming  the  structure  by  rings  of  nine  inches,  united  by  the  ce- 
ment only,  has  proved  the  most  efficient  way  to  prevent  the  con- 
sequences that  were  to  be  apprehended  from  any  derangement  or 
disruptions  that  might  result  from  partial  settlements. 

From  the  14th  of  January  to  the  14th  of  April  following,  al- 
though the  ground  was  in  general  so  loose  that  the  river  deposits 
were  sometimes  found  in  the  way  of  the  excavation,  and  although 
the  influx  of  water  was  generally  excessively  abundant,  the  pro- 
gress of  the  work  exceeded  upon  the  whole  that  of  any  period 
during  the  course  of  the  operation :  it  has  been  as  much  as  four- 
teen feet  in  a  week,  and  even  three  feet  per  day.  However,  in 
consequence  of  the  frequent  run  of  fluid  ground,  the  engineer  ap- 
plied for  and  procured  a  diving-bell  for  the  purpose  of  examining 
the  bottom  of  the  river.  The  first  inspection  took  place  on  the 
22d  of  April.  A  shovel  and  a  hammer,  left  at  the  bottom  of  the 
river,  were  not  found  again  upon  the  next  visit,  as  expected.  Some 
depressions  were  discovered  in  several  places  and  were  secured. 

On  the  12th  of  May,  however,  in  the  act  of  removing  the  polings 
in  front  of  several  cells,  the  ground  made  its  way  at  the  top  of 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  437 

ten  frames  in  succession.  One  of  the  top  cells,  in  particular,  was 
filled  several  times,  but  by  an  expeditious  move,  and  the  intre- 
pidity of  one  of  the  miners,  the  ground  was  secured  and  the  work 
was  brought  forward.  In  advancing  one  of  the  middle  frames, 
the  shovel  and  the  hammer  which  had  been  missing,  were  found 
in  the  way  of  it,  having  descended  at  least  eighteen  feet  into  the 
ground. 

Notwithstanding  the  loose  state  of  the  ground,  the  shield  had 
gradually  gained  under  a  more  substantial  covering,  when  several 
vessels,  coming  in  at  a  late  tide,  moored  just  over  the  head  of  the 
Tunnel,  where  no  vessels  had  moored  since  the  docks  had  been 
open  to  the  trade.  It  resulted  from  this  obstruction  to  the  stream, 
that  those  substances  which  protected  the  softer  ground  from  the 
action  of  the  tides,  were  washed  away.  The  river  soon  made  its 
way  into  the  Tunnel,  forming  at  first  a  transparent  curtain  be- 
tween the  shield  and  the  brick  structure.  Every  exertion  made 
to  oppose  it  proved  fruitless ;  the  river  soon  after  broke  in  and 
filled  the  Tunnel.  This  irruption  took  place  on  the  18th  of 
May,  1827. 

On  examining  the  hole  with  the  diving-bell,  the  structure  was 
ascertained  to  be  perfectly  sound,  and  the  shield,  to  all  appearance, 
undisturbed.  The  repairs  were  immediately  proceeded  with,  by 
means  of  clay  in  bags,  armed  with  small  hazel  rods :  about  three 
thousand  tons  of  this  fiirh%,  with  some  other  soil,  were  required 
to  close  the  hole,  or  rather  the  chasm,  which  was  found  to  exceed 
thirty-eight  feet  in  depth. 

At  this  period  of  the  proceedings,  many  hundred  projects  were 
sent  to  the  directors  or  to  the  engineer,  but  none  were  found  ap- 
plicable to  the  case. 

On  the  21st  of  June  the  Tunnel  was  sufficiently  clear  of  water 
to  be  entered ;  and  by  the  middle  of  August  the  soil  which  had 
been  driven  into  the  arches  was  completely  removed.  The  struc- 
ture was  found  quite  sound ;  but,  owing  to  the  settlement  of  the 
new  ground,  augmented  too  by  the  weight  of  the  water,  the  frames 
were  found  separated  at  the  head,  the  chain  that  united  them 
having  given  way.  Nothing  can  convey  so  just  an  idea  of  the" 
impetuosity  of  the  irruption,  as  the  state  in  which  the  invert  of  the 
arch  was  found.  There  the  brickwork  was  reduced  by  nearly 
one  half  of  its  thickness,  as  if  it  had  been  battered  with  cannon- 
balls  of  small  calibre ;  at  the  thickest  part  of  the  foundation  a 
hole  was  open,  as  if  made  by  the  fall  of  a  fourteen-inch  shell. 
Some  heavy  pieces  of  casting  belonging  to  the  shield  had  disap- 
peared ;  but  they  were  found  afterwards  driven  into  the  ground  as  if 
forced  by  a  powerful  ram.  In  consequence  of  the  continued  depres- 


438  ANECDOTES, 

sion  of  the  new-made  ground,  moving  too  in  an  oblique  direction, 
several  further  ruptures  took  place  in  the  frames,  with  reports  as 
loud  as  cannon-shots.  The  men  were  not,  however,  dismayed, 
even  at  the  sensible  movement  of  the  ground  :  although  the  frames 
were  separated  by  more  than  two  feet  at  the  head,  the  arches  ex- 
perienced no  derangement  whatever.  The  work  was  resumed 
and  extended  fifty  feet  beyond  the  first  irruption ;  and,  notwith- 
standing the  disadvantages  under  which  this  additional  portion 
was  effected  with  a  shield  so  very  much  weakened,  and  so  much 
out  of  order,  no  part  of  the  structure  has  been  more  substantially 
constituted  than  these  fifty  feet,  which  brought  the  whole  to  the 
middle  of  the  low  water. 

In  the  early  part  of  January,  1828,  in  consequence,  in  a  great 
measure,  of  the  interruption  which  had  taken  place  during  the  pre- 
ceding week's  holidays,  the  ground  had  become  looser  than  be- 
fore. On  the  12th,  in  particular,  the  greatest  precautions  became 
necessary  against  a  manifest  danger.  The  men  were  ordered  out 
in  time,  except  four,  whom  Mr.  Brunei,  jun.,  selected  to  remain 
with  him.  Every  exertion  was  made  to  oppose  the  mass  of  earth, 
but  the  ground,  swelling  and  rolling  in,  as  we  are  told  of  the  pro- 
gress of  lava,  became  irresistible  in  its  progress.  One  of  the  men, 
having  executed  his  part,  made  his  escape.  Suddenly,  as  Mr. 
Brunei  was  directing  the  others  how  to  save  themselves,  the 
ground  burst  in  like  a  volcanic  irruption,  with  a  tremendous  crash ; 
all  the  lights  were  blown  out  at  once.  Through  this  total  dark- 
ness Mr.  Brunei  reached  the  shaft,  but  the  water  was  at  the  top 
before  him.  The  men  collected  at  the  top  had  seen  the  waves 
close  upon  the  scene  before  Mr.  Brunei  emerged  from  it.  The 
three  men  were  not  so  fortunate  ;  three  others  were  likewise  lost ; 
but  these  must  have  been  the  victims  of  their  own  imprudence  and 
curiosity,  as  they  had  not  been  detained  in  the  work. 

This  second  irruption,  though  still  more  sudden  and  more 
formidable  than  the  first,  was  overcome  by  the  same  means.  No 
less  than  four  thousand  tons  of  soil,  chiefly  clay  in  bags,  were  re- 
quired to  fill  the  chasm  and  effect  a  substantial  covering.  On 
re-entering  the  Tunnel,  the  structure  was  found  perfectly  sound ; 
and  the  shield  was  a  powerful  barrier  against  which  the  bags  were 
collected  and  retained  by  these  rods  with  which  they  were  armed. 

In  this  state  of  things,  the  pecuniary  resources  of  the  company 
being  too  low  to  proceed  with  the  work,  the  directors  found  them- 
selves reduced  to  the  necessity  of  discontinuing  it.  The  ends  of 
the  arches  were  accordingly  closed  until  means  could  be  obtained 
to  resume  the  undertaking.  Many  more  plans  were  received  by 
the  directors  at  this  juncture,  but  all  were  equally  unavailable.  It 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  441 

has,  however,  since  been  resumed  under  favorable  auspices,  and 
at  the  present  time  the  Tunnel  is  about  completed. 

The  average  cost  of  the  Thames  Tunnel  does  not  exceed 
£6  3s.  9d.  per  cubic  yard  of  the  ground  removed,  including  the 
structure,  which  contains  nine  hundred  and  sixty  rods  of  brick- 
work. The  average  cost  of  the  drift- way  is  £16'  10s.  per  cubic 
yard,  with  no  mare  than  seven  rods  of  brickwork. 


Watchmaking  in  Switzerland. 

The  following  details  are  given  in  an  abridged  form  from  a 
"  Report  on  the  Commerce  and  Manufactures  of  Switzerland,"  by 
Dr.  Bowring,  recently  laid  before  Parliament.  A  large  portion 
of  the  facts  were  furnished  to  Dr.  Bowring  by  M.  Houriet,  an  in- 
telligent manufacturer,  who,  in  his  communication,  dated  January, 
1836,  asks  for  indulgence  on  the  plea  that  he  is  neither  "  a  learned 
man  nor  a  writer,"  and  yet,  says  Dr.  Bowring,  "  a  more  interest- 
ing and  instructive  document  has  seldom,  I  believe,  been  furnished." 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  interesting  branches  of  Swiss  in- 
dustry is  the  watchmaking  trade.  It  is  carried  on  to  an  immense 
and  still  increasing  extent  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Neuchatel, 
in  the  French  portion  of  the  Canton  of  Berne,  and  in  the  town  and 
neighborhood  of  Geneva.  It  has  been  a  source  of  wealth  and 
comfort  to  many  thousands  of  the  inhabitants,  who,  in  the  seldom- 
visited  villages  of  the  Jura,  have  gathered  around  them  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  enjoyments  of  life.  Switzerland  has  long  furnished  the 
markets  of  France  ;  and  though  the  names  of  certain  French 
watchmakers  have  obtained  a  European  celebrity,  yet  Dr.  Bowring 
was  informed  by  M.  Arago  that  an  examination  into  this  trade  had 
elicited  the  fact  that  not  ten  watches  were  made  in  Paris  in  the 
course  of  a  year,  the  immense  consumption  of  France  being  fur- 
nished from  Switzerland,  and  the  Swiss  works  being  only  examined 
and  rectified  by  the  French  manufacturers.  The  contraband  trade 
into  France  was  immense,  and  no  custom-house  regulations  could 
stop  the  introduction  of  articles  so  costly  and  so  little  bulky.  They 
are  now  admitted  into  France  at  six  per  cent,  for  gold,  and  ten  per 
cent,  for  silver  watches,  and  a  considerable  quantity  pays  this 
moderate  duty. 

The  Jura  mountains  have  been  the  cradle  of  much  celebrity  in 
the  mechanical  arts,  particularly  in  those  more  exquisite  produc- 
tions of  which  a  minute  complication  is  the  peculiar  character. 
During  the  winter,  which  lasts  from  six  to  seven  months,  the  inha- 
bitants are,  as  it  were,  imprisoned  in  their  dwellings,  and  occupied 


442  ANECDOTES, 

in  those  works  which  require  the  utmost  development  of  skilful 
ingenuity.  Nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  watches  are 
produced  annually  in  the  elevated  regions  of  Neuchatel.  In  Swit- 
zerland the  most  remarkable  of  the  French  watchmakers,  and 
among  them  one  who  has  lately  obtained  the  gold  medal  at  Paris 
for  his  beautiful  watch-movements,  had  their  birth  and  education  ; 
and  a  sort  of  honorable  distinction  attaches  to  the  watchmaking 
trade.  The  horologers  consider  themselves  as  belonging  to  a 
nobler  profession  than  ordinary  mechanics,  and  do  not  willingly 
allow  their  children  to  marry  into  what  they  consider  the  inferior 
classes. 

The  art  or  trade  of  clockmaking  was  introduced  into  the  moun- 
tains of  Neuchatel  in  a  manner  worthy  of  notice.  As  early  as  the 
seventeenth  century  some  workmen  had  constructed  clocks  with 
weights,  but  no  idea  had  been  conceived  of  making  clocks  with 
springs.  About  the  end  of  that  century,  an  inhabitant  of  the  moun- 
tains, returning  from  a  long  voyage,  brought  with  him  a  watch, 
which  was  an  object  previously  unknown  in  the  country.  It  was 
put  into  the  hands  of  a  skilful  workman  to  be  repaired,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  doing  so,  and  then  tried  to  make  a  similar  article.  He 
succeeded  in  effecting  this  also,  notwithstanding  the  difficulties 
which  lay  in  his  way,  he  having  to  construct  the  tools  with  which 
he  wrought,  as  well  as  all  the  different  movements  of  the  watch. 
His  success  naturally  created  a  great  sensation ;  other  workmen 
were  stimulated  to  try  what  they  could  do,  and  a  new  branch  of 
industry  sprung  up  in  the  mountains  of  Neuchatel.  During  the 
first  forty  or  fifty  years  a  few  workmen  only  were  employed  in 
watchmaking ;  and  owing  to  the  numberless  difficulties  they  had 
to  surmount,  to  the  slowness  of  execution  caused  by  the  absence 
of  convenient  tools,  the  want  of  proper  materials,  &c.,  the  produc- 
tions and  profits  were  inconsiderable.  They  began  at  length  to 
procure  the  articles  of  which  they  stood  in  need  from  Geneva,  and 
afterwards  from  England  ;  but  the  high  prices  which  these  articles 
cost  induced  many  of  the  workmen  to  attempt  to  provide  them  for 
themselves.  They  not  only  thus  succeeded  in  rivalling  foreign 
tools,  but  they  eventually  made  many  superior  ones  till  then  unknown. 
From  that  period  they  have  constantly  invented  other  instruments 
in  order  to  facilitate  and  perfect  the  art  of  watchmaking ;  and  at  the 
present  moment  the  manufacture  of  watchmaking  tools  and  appur= 
tenances  is  become  a  branch  of  industry  of  so  much  importance, 
as  to  enable  the  inhabitants  to  supply  them  to  those  countries  from 
whence  they  formerly  imported  them. 

It  is  not  more  than  eighty  or  ninety  years  since  a  few  merchants 
began  to  collect  together  small  parcels  of  watches,  in  order  to  sell 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  443 

them  in  foreign  markets.  The  success  which  attended  these  spe- 
culations induced  and  encouraged  the  population  to  devote  them- 
selves still  more  to  the  production  of  articles  of  ready  sale ;  so 
much  so,  that  nearly  the  entire  inhabitants  have  embraced  the 
watchmaking  trade.  The  population  has  increased  threefold,  in- 
dependently of  the  great  number  of  workmen  who  are  established 
in  almost  all  the  towns  of  Europe,  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  even  in  the  East  Indies  and  China.  From  this  period  a  great 
change  has  taken  place  in  the  country  of  Neuchatel,  where,  not- 
withstanding the  barrenness  of  the  soil  and  the  severity  of  the  cli- 
mate, beautiful  and  well-built  villages  are  everywhere  to  be  seen, 
connected  by  easy  communications,  together  with  a  very  considera- 
ble and  industrious  population,  in  the  enjoyment,  if  not  of  great 
fortunes,  at  least  of  a  happy  and  easy  independence. 

"  If  our  watches,"  says  M.  Houriet,  "  have  attained  a  certain 
reputation  of  superiority,  it  is  in  a  great  measure  to  be  attributed 
to  the  independence  of  our  workmen,  and  to  the  advantage  which 
they  have  derived  from  a  careful  and  studied  execution  of  the 
several  articles  intrusted  to  their  respective  and  particular  talents. 
Indeed,  on  the  one  hand,  each  artisan  working  at  home,  and  for 
whomsoever  pays  him  the  best  price,  and  on  the  other,  the  mer- 
chant having  an  interest  to  encourage  by  paying  the  best  prices  to 
those  who  furnish  him  with  the  best  materials  and  work,  a  kind  of 
emulation  is  naturally  excited  among  the  workmen  to  obtain  a  pre- 
ference and  an  advantage.  Perhaps,  also,  the  spirit  which  is  gene- 
rally diffused  among  the  inhabitants  of  mountainous  countries, 
added  to  the  habits  and  customs  of  our  workmen,  who  are  at  the 
same  time  landed  proprietors,  has  not  a  little  contributed  to  this 
development  of  talent  amongst  our  population.  Living  simply, 
and  in  the  bosom  of  their  families,  occupied  entirely  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  slight  agricultural  cares)  in  the  labors  of  their  art, 
and  not  being  exposed  to  those  temptations  which  exist  in  and  cor- 
rupt large  societies,  it  is  very  natural  that  they  should  be  more 
assiduous  and  more  desirous  of  attaining  perfection  in  their  art; 
and  the  more  so  still,  as  they  derive  a  greater  benefit  from  it,  their 
reputation  and  their  interest  are  equally  engaged. 

"  The  present  condition  of  this  branch  of  industry  is  extremely 
prosperous,  and  it  is  with  great  difficulty  that  we  can  succeed  in 
executing  all  the  orders  which  we  receive. 

"  As  to  the  probable  fate  of  this  trade,  it  is  even  permitted  to 
hope,  and  with  much  probability,  that  it  is  yet  susceptible  of  exten- 
sion. A  watch  is  no  longer,  as  it  was  formerly,  an  object  of  luxury, 
destined  exclusively  for  the  rich  ;  it  -has  become  an  article  of  the 
first  necessity  for  every  class  in  society :  and  as,  together  with  the 


444  ANECDOTES, 

increased  perfection  of  this  article,  its  value  has  at  the  same  time 
considerably  diminished,  it  is  evident  that  a  common  watch,  which 
will  exactly  indicate  the  hour  of  the  day,  is  actually  (by  its  low 
price)  within  the  reach  of  almost  every  individual,  who  will  likewise 
ieel  anxious  to  possess  one.  For  this  reason,  and  in  proportion 
as  commercial  and  maritime  relations  are  extended  and  emanci- 
pated from  the  trammels  in  which  the  great  central  marts  of  com- 
merce have  involved  them,  so  will  distant  nations  become  civilized ; 
and  it  may  be  fairly  anticipated  that  the  art  of  watchmaking  will 
form  a  part  of  the  great  current  of  improvement. 

"  The  number  of  watches  manufactured  annually  in  this  canton 
(Neuchatel)  may  be  calculated  to  be  from  100,000  to  120,000,  of 
which  about  35,000  are  in  gold,  and  the  rest  in  silver.  Now,  sup- 
posing the  first,  on  an  average,  to  be  worth  150  francs,  and  the 
others  20  francs,  it  would  represent  a  capital  of  nearly  7,000,000 
francs,  without  taking  into  consideration  the  sale  of  clocks  and 
instruments  for  watchmaking,  the  amount  of  which  is  very  large. 

"  Not  only  the  whole  of  the  European  markets,  but  also  those 
of  the  most  distant  countries,  are  now  opened  to  our  productions. 
The  United  States  of  America  consume  the  largest  proportion  of 
our  watches.  There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  with  respect 
to  the  degree  of  facility  which  is  afforded  to  us  by  the  several  na- 
tions with  whom  we  deal.  In  Austria,  and  in  all  the  countries 
under  her  dominion,  as  well  as  in  Sweden,  our  clocks  and  watches 
are  prohibited,  and  only  penetrate  by  fraud.  In  England,  the  duty 
is  twenty-five  per  cent,  for  home  consumption  ;  and  for  the  colonies, 
though  there  is  in  London  a  bonding  depot,  it  offers  too  many  dis- 
advantages and  impediments  to  permit  us  to  make  use  of  it :  for 
an  article  of  such  careful  and  delicate  construction  ought  not  to  be 
mixed  pell-mell  with  grosser  commodities,  as  it  runs  too  great  a 
risk  of  being  seriously  damaged.  In  Spain,  and  in  most  of  the 
Italian  States,  the  duty  is  equivalent  to  a  prohibition.  In  France, 
the  duty  has  recently  been  reduced  sufficiently  low  to  render  smug- 
gling unnecessary.  In  Russia  and  in  the  United  States,  the  duty, 
though  high,  can  still  be  borne.  In  Prussia,  the  duty  has  always 
been  moderate,  and  of  late  years  it  has  been  reduced  by  one-half 
in  favor  of  our  productions.  Finally,  the  States  of  the  German 
and  the  Swiss  Confederation  are  the  only  countries  which  have 
been  entirely  open  to  this  species  of  commerce  ;  and  it  has  always 
been  easy  to  forward  to  Turkey  and  to  the  Levant  by  the  free 
ports  of  the  Mediterranean.  We  are  making  arrangements  with 
Russia  for  an  overland  trade  to  China." 

With  the  exception  of  gold  and  silver  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
watch-cases,  the  other  materials  for  the  construction  of  the  works 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  445 

or  mechanism  of  the  Neuchatel  watches  are  of  little  value,  con- 
sisting merely  of  a  little  brass  and  steel.  The  steel  is  imported 
from  England,  and  is  reckoned  the  best  that  can  be  procured ;  the 
brass,  which  was  formerly  brought  from  Holland,  is  now  furnished 
by  France,  the  French  brass  being  now  considered  much  superior. 
With  respect  to  gold  and  silver,  the  inhabitants  of  Neuchatel  have 
no  other  resource  but  to  melt  current  money,  which  induces  M. 
Houriet  to  suggest  that  an  advantageous  commerce  might  be  opened 
up  with  such  countries  as  possess  the  precious  metals. 

The  spirit  of  adventure  is  very  strong  among  the  industrious 
inhabitants  of  the  Jura  Mountains.  A  great  many  of  them  have 
travelled  into  veiy  remote  countries,  whence  some  have  returned 
with  considerable  fortunes.  A  few  years  ago  a  watchmaker  of 
Neuchatel  found  his  way  to  China,  where  he  amassed  a  handsome 
property  by  importing  watches  ;  and  he  returned  home  since,  ac- 
companied by  a  young  Chinese,  whom  he  caused  to  be  instructed 
in  the  trade,  and  who  had  sailed  for  Canton  only  a  few  weeks  before 
Dr.  Bowring's  visit. 

Perpetual  Motion. 

AN  able  writer  in  the  '  Penny  Magazine1  has  clearly  shown  the 
futility  of  seeking  to  square  the  circle,  a  pursuit  in  which,  he  says, 
persons  are  still  engaged.  How  many  may  waste  their  time  on 
such  an  object  I  have  no  means  of  knowing  ;  not  any  considera- 
ble number,  I  should  think,  as  nobody  can  expect  any  profit  to 
arise  even  from  success.  At  all  events,  such  enthusiasts  must  be 
few  indeed  compared  with  those  who  are  spending  their  days  and 
nights,  and  exhausting  their  means,  in  the  equally  vain  hope  of 
discovering  the  perpetual  motion.  Professional  men,  employed  in 
preparing  patents,  could  tell  of  project  after  project  submitted  to 
them  by  the  impatient  inventor  who  is  afraid  of  waiting  to  perfect 
his  machine,  lest  his  invaluable  secret  should  get  abroad,  and  he 
should  be  deprived  of  the  riches  which  he  has  all  but  in  his 
grasp. 

Two  classes  of  persons  are  inveigled  into  this  hopeless  quest : 
the  first  is  the  projector,— -generally  a  man  who  can  handle  tools, 
and  who  is  gifted  with  some  small  power  of  invention, — a  faculty, 
as  Mr.  Babbage  justly  observes,  by  no  means  rare,  and  of  little 
use  unless  coupled  with  some  knowledge  of  what  others  have  done 
before  him.  Of  the  inventions  already  made, — of  the  experiments 
which  have  been  tried  and  have  failed, — our  projector  is  usually 
profoundly  ignorant.  What  are  called  the  laws  of  machanics, 
namely,  general  truths  which  were  established  by  the  observations 

32  l 


446  ANECDOTES, 

of  scientific  men  in  times  past,  and  which  are  now  admitted  by 
all  who  take  the  trouble  to  investigate  them,  he  has  either  never 
heard  of,  or  chooses  to  set  at  nought  without  inquiry.  The  other 
class  is  that  which  finds  capital.  The  projector,  having  perhaps 
exhausted  his  own  funds,  takes  his  scheme  to  some  person  who 
has  a  little  money  to  spare,  and  dazzles  him  with  the  prospects 
of  sudden  and  splendid  wealth  :  little  by  little  he  is  drawn  into 
expenses  which  neither  of  them  perhaps  had  anticipated.  Failure 
after  failure  ensues,  but  still  all  is  to  be  right  at  last.  The  fear 
of  ridicule, — the  necessity  for  retrieving,  the  one  his  capital,  the 
other  his  credit, — these  motives  carry  them  on  till  the  ruin  of 
both  puts  a  termination  to  their  folly. 

Unhappily,  however,  the  stage  is  quickly  occupied  by  other 
adventurers,  profiting  nothing  by  the  fate  of  their  precursors  ;  and 
yet  one  would  think  that  a  very  slight  consideration  of  the  subject 
would  be  sufficient  to  show  the  absurdity  of  the  undertaking. 
What  is  the  object  aimed  at  ?  Is  it  to  make  a  machine  which, 
being  once  set  in  motion,  shall  go  on  without  stopping  until  it  is 
worn  out  ?  Every  person  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  the  perpetual 
motion  would  perhaps  accept  this  as  a  true  statement  of  the  object 
in  view.  Yet  nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  make  such  a  machine. 
There  are  from  ten  to  twenty  of  them  at  work  at  this  moment 
on  the  Rhine,  opposite  Mayence.  These  are  water-mills  in  boats, 
which  are  moored  in  a  certain  part  of  the  river ;  and,  as  the 
Rhine  is  never  dry,  these  mills,  which  are  simple  in  their  con- 
struction, would  go  on  for  years, — go  on,  indeed,  until  they  were 
worn  out.  But  if  this  instance  were  mentioned,  the  projector 
would  perceive  that  the  statement  of  his  object  was  imperfect.  It 
must  run  thus  :  a  machine  which,  being  set  in  motion,  shall  go 
on  till  worn  out  without  any  power  being  employed  to  keep  it  in 
motion. 

Probably  few  persons  who  embark  in  such  a  project  sit  down 
beforehand  to  consider  thoroughly  what  it  is  they  are  about  to 
undertake,  otherwise  it  could  hardly  require  much  knowledge  of 
mechanics  to  see  the  impossibility  of  constructing  such  a  machine. 
Take  as  many  shafts,  wheels,  pulleys,  and  springs  as  you  please  : 
if  you  throw  them  in  a  heap  in  the  corner  of  your  room,  you  do 
not  expect  them  to  move  ;  it  is  only  when  put  together  that  the 
wildest  enthusiast  expects  them  to  be  endowed  with  the  power  of 
self-movement ;  nor  then  unless  the  machine  is  set  going.  I  never 
heard  of  a  projector  who  expected  his  engine  to  set  off  the  moment 
the  last  nail  was  driven,  or  instantly  on  the  last  stroke  of  the  file. 
And  why  not  ?  A  machine  that  would  continue  to  go  of  itself 
would  begin  of  itself.  No  machine  can  be  made  which  has  not 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  447 

some  friction,  which,  however  slight,  would  in  a  short  time  exhaust 
any  power  that  could  have  been  employed  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
setting  it  in  motion.  But  a  machine,  to  be  of  any  use,  must  not 
only  keep  moving  itself,  but  furnish  power ;  or,  in  other  words, 
it  must  not  only  keep  in  motion,  but  it  must  have  power  to  expend 
in  some  labor,  as  grinding  corn,  rolling  metals,  urging  forward  a 
vessel  or  a  carriage  ;  so  that,  by  an  arrangement  of  parts  which 
of  themselves  have  no  moving  power,  the  projector  expects  to 
make  a  machine,  self-moving,  and  with  the  power  of  performing 
some  useful  task ! 

"  Father,  I  have  invented  a  perpetual  motion  !"  said  a  little 
fellow  of  eight  years  old.  "  It  is  thus  :  I  would  make  a  great 
wheel,  and  fix  it  up  like  a  water-wheel ;  at  the  top  I  would  hang 
a  great  weight,  and  at  the  bottom  I  would  hang  a  number  of  little 
weights  ;  then  the  great  weight  would  turn  the  wheel  half  round 
and  sink  to  the  bottom,  because  it  is  so  heavy,  and  when  the  little 
weights  reached  the  top,  they  would  sink  down  because  they  are 
so  many,  and  thus  the  wheel  would  turn  round  for  ever.11  The 
child's  fallacy  is  a  type  of  all  the  blunders  which  are  made  on  this 
subject.  Follow  a  projector  in  his  description,  and  if  it  be  not 
perfectly  unintelligible,  which  it  often  is,  it  always  proves  that  he 
expects  to  find  certain  of  his  movements  alternately  strong  and 
weak,  not  according  to  the  laws  of  nature,  but  according  to  the 
wants  of  his  mechanism. 

If  man  could  produce  a  machine  which  would  generate  the 
power  by  which  it  is  worked,  he  would  become  a  creator.  All 
he  has  hitherto  done, — all,  I  may  safely  predict,  he  ever  will  do, — 
is  to  mould  existing  power  so  as  to  make  it  perform  his  bidding. 
He  can  make  the  waterfall  in  the  brook  spin  his  cotton,  or  print 
his  book  by  means  of  machinery,  but  a  mill  to  pump  water  enough 
to  keep  itself  at  work  he  cannot  make.  Absurd  as  it  may  seem, 
the  experiment  has  been  tried  ;  but,  in  truth,  no  scheme  is  too 
absurd  for  adoption  by  the  seekers  after  perpetual  motion.  A 
machine,  then,  is  a  mere  conductor  of  power  into  a  useful  channel. 
The  wind  grinds  the  corn, — the  sails,  the  shafts,  and  the  stones 
are  only  the  means  by  which  the  power  of  the  wind  can  be  turned 
to  that  particular  purpose ;  so  it  is  the  heat  thrown  out  by  the 
burning  coal  which  performs  all  the  multifarious  operations  of  the 
steam  engine,  the  machinery  being  only  the  connecting  links  be- 
tween  the  cause  and  the  effect. 

Perhaps  these  remarks  may  induce  any  projector  who  has  not 
yet  begun,  to  pause  on  his  enterprise  ;  and  may  cause  those  who 
are  about  to  advance  their  capital  in  such  vain  speculations,  to  ex- 
amine the  probabilities  of  a  return  for  their  outlay. 


448  ANECDOTES, 

The  Balsa. 


This  ingenious  contrivance,  like  the  catamarans  and  massulah 
boats  of  Madras,  is  used  for  landing  with  safety  through  a  heavy 
surf.  The  "  Balsa,"  which  is  especially  employed  on  the  coasts  of 
South  America,  both  east  and  west,  exhibits  a  remarkable  instance 
of  the  ingenuity  of  the  human  mind  in  overcoming  those  obstacles 
which  nature  has  raised  to  the  prosecution  of  its  pursuits.  It  is  form- 
ed of  two  seal  skins  sewed  up  so  as  to  form  large  bags  from  seven  to 
nine  feet  in  length  ;  these,  being  covered  with  a  bituminous  sub. 
stance  so  as  to  be  perfectly  air-tight,  are  inflated  by  flexible  tubes 
and  secured  by  ligatures  ;  the  pipe  is  of  sufficient  length  to  reach 
the  mouth  of  the  conductor  of  this  frail  bark,  who  is  thus  enabled 
occasionally  to  replenish  the  bladders  with  air,  should  any  have 
escaped.  The  two  are  securely  fastened  together  at  one  end, 
which  forms  the  prow  of  the  vessel ;  the  other  ends  are  spread 
about  four  feet  apart  by  a  small  plank,  and  the  raft  completed 
with  small  sticks  covered  over  with  matting.  The  manager  of 
the  balsa  sits  well  forward,  with  his  passengers  or  goods  close 
behind  him,  and  armed  with  a  double-bladed  paddle  approaches 
the  back  of  the  surf,  waiting  for  the  highest  wave,  and  contrives 
to  keep  his  balsa  on  the  top  of  it  with  her  bow  towards  the  shore 
till  she  is  thrown  upon  the  beach  to  the  very  extent  that  the  surf 
reaches,  and  the  man  immediately  jumps  off  to  secure  his  balsa 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  449 

from  returning  with  the  sea,  when  the  passengers  land  without 
wetting  the  soles  of  their  shoes.  The  balsa  will  easily  carry  three 
passengers  besides  the  person  who  guides  it,  and  is  employed  in 
landing  the  cargoes  from  merchant  vessels  where  the  violence  of 
the  surf,  particularly  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  prevents  the 
possibility  of  European  boats  passing  through  it  without  great 
danger.  Along  the  coast  of  Peru,  which  is  almost  entirely  devoid 
of  harbors,  it  is  the  only  vessel  used  for  these  purposes,  and  by 
such  frail  means  large  bags  of  dollars  and  doubloons,  and  bars 
of  silver  and  gold,  are  shipped  off,  without  the  least  apprehension 
of  their  safe  conveyance.  Balsa,  which  is  a  Spanish  word,  means, 
in  a  nautical  sense,  float  or  raft ;  the  above  description  applies 
only  to  that  kind  used  at  sea,  but  there  is  another  balsa,  more 
simple  and  more  frail,  used  in  crossing  rivers,  an  account  of  which 
is  thus  given  by  Mr.  Temple  in  his  humorous  and  entertaining 
Travels  in  Peru  :  "  Take  a  dried  bullock's  hide,  pinch  up  each 
of  the  four  corners,  put  a  stitch  with  a  thorn  to  keep  those  corners 
together,  and  your  boat  is  made.  For  use,  place  it  upon  the  water 
bottom  downwards,  then  put  one  foot  immediately  in  the  centre, 
and  let  the  other  follow  with  the  most  delicate  caution  ;  you  are 
now  to  shrink  downwards,  contracting  your  body  precisely  in  the 
manner  in  which,  probably,  in  your  childhood,  you  have  pressed 
a  friar  into  a  snuff-box.  When  crouched  down  in  the  bottom, 
sundry  articles  are  handed  in  and  ingeniously  deposited  round 
you,  until  the  balsa  sinks  to  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half; 
it  is  then  considered  sufficiently  laden.  A  naked  peone  (guide) 
now  plunges  into  the  stream,  and,  taking  hold  of  one  corner  of 
the  balsa,  a  peone  on  the  shore  imparts  a  gentle  impulse  to  your 
tottering  bark,  while  the  person  in  the  water,  keeping  hold  of  the 
corner  with  one  hand,  strikes  out  with  the  other,  and  swims  away 
with  you  to  the  opposite  bank."  The  work  from  which  the  above 
extract  is  made,  is  written  in  so  -facetious  and  lively  a  strain,  at 
the  same  time  giving  such  faithful  and  characteristic  sketches  of 
the  customs  of  the  country,  that  his  readers  cannot  fail  to  receive 
amusement  as  well  as  instruction. 


Automata. 

An  automaton  is  a  piece  of  mechanism,  made  to  resemble  a  liv- 
ing creature  in  outward  appearance,  and  contrived  so  as  to  perform 
certain  actions,  resembling  those  of  the  being  it  represents.  Both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times,  the  skill  of  ingenious  men  has  been 

32* 


450  ANECDOTES, 

directed  to  contrivances  of  this  nature,  some  of  which  have  dis- 
played wonderful  powers  of  invention,  though  in  general  little  or 
no  utility,  unless  so  far  as  they  were  sources  of  public  amusement, 
and  examples  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  reflection  and  long 
perseverance.  Brewster,  in  his  Natural  Magic,  has  given  a  very 
full  account  of  the  most  remarkable  automata,  from  which  this 
article  is  principally  taken. 

Mechanical  automata  of  the  ancients. — The  ancients  had  attained 
some  degree  of  perfection  in  the  construction  of  automata.  The 
tripods  which  Homer  mentions  as  having  been  constructed  by 
Vulcan  for  the  banqueting-hall  of  the  gods,  advanced  of  their  own 
accord  to  the  table,  and  again  returned  to  their  place.  Self-moving 
tripods  are  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  and  Philostratus  informs  us,  in 
his  Life  of  Apollonius,  that  this  philosopher  saw  and  admired  simi- 
lar pieces  of  mechanism  among  the  sages  of  India. 

Automata  of  Dcedalus. — Daedalus  enjoys  also  the  reputation  of 
having  constructed  machines  that  imitated  the  motions  of  the  hu- 
man body.  Some  of  his  statues  are  said  to  have  moved  about 
spontaneously,  and  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  others  have  related  that  it 
was  necessary  to  tie  them,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  running 
away.  Aristotle  speaks  of  a  wooden  Venus,  which  moved  about 
in  consequence  of  quicksilver  being  poured  into  its  interior ;  but 
Callistratus,  the  tutor  of  Demosthenes,  states,  with  some  probability, 
that  the  statues  of  Daedalus  received  their  motion  from  the  me- 
chanical powers.  Beckmann  is  of  opinion  that  the  statues  of 
Daedalus  differed  only  from  those  of  the  early  Greeks  and  Egyp- 
tians in  having  their  eyes  open  and  their  feet  and  hands  free,  and 
that  the  reclining  posture  of  some,  and  the  attitude  of  others,  "  as 
if  ready  to  walk,"  gave  rise  to  the  exaggeration  that  they  possessed 
the  power  of  locomotion.  This  opinion,  however,  cannot  be  main- 
tained with  any  show  of  reason ;  for  if  we  apply  such  a  principle 
in  one  case,  we  must  apply  it  in  all,  and  the  mind  would  be  left  in 
a  state  of  utter  skepticism  respecting  the  inventions  of  ancient 
times. 

Wooden  pigeon  of  Archytas. — We  are  informed  by  Aulus  Gel- 
lius,  on  the  authority  of  Favorinus,  that  Archytas  of  Tarentum, 
who  flourished  about  four  hundred  years  before  Christ,  constructed 
a  wooden  pigeon  which  was  capable  of  flying.  Favorinus  relates, 
that  when  it  had  once  alighted,  it  could  not  again  resume  its  flight ; 
and  Aulus  Gellius  adds,  that  it  was  suspended  by  balancing,  and 
animated  by  a  concealed  aura  or  spirit. 

Automatic  clock  of  Charlemagne. — Among  the  earliest  pieces 
of  modern  mechanism  was  the  curious  water-clock  presented  to 
Charlemagne  by  the  Kaliph  Harun  al  Raschid.  In  the  dial-plate 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  451 

there  were  twelve  small  windows,  corresponding  with  the  divisions 
of  the  hours.  The  hours  were  indicated  by  the  opening  of  the 
windows,  which  let  out  little  metallic  balls,  which  struck  the  hour 
by  falling  upon  a  brazen  bell.  The  doors  continued  open  till 
twelve  o'clock,  when  twelve  little  knights,  mounted  on  horseback, 
came  out  at  the  same  instant,  and  after  parading  around  the  dial, 
shut  all  the  windows,  and  returned  to  their  apartments. 

Automata  of  Mutter  and  Turrianus.-^-The  next  automata  of 
which  any  distinct  account  has  been  preserved,  are  those  of  the 
celebrated  John  Muller,  or  Regiomontanus,  which  have  been  men. 
tioned  by  Kircher,  Baptista  Porta,  Gassendi,  Lana,  and  Bishop 
Wilkins.  This  philosopher  is  said  to  have  constructed  an  artificial 
eagle,  which  flew  to  meet  the  Emperor  Maximilian  when  he  ar- 
rived at  Nuremberg  on  the  7th  June,  1470.  After  soaring  aloft 
in  the  air,  the  eagle  is  stated  to  have  met  the  emperor  at  some 
distance  from  the  city,  and  to  have  returned  and  perched  upon  the 
town  gate,  where  it  waited  his  approach.  When  the  emperor 
reached  the  gate,  the  eagle  stretched  out  its  wings,  and  saluted 
him  by  an  inclination  of  its  body.  Muller  is  likewise  reported  to 
have  constructed  an  iron  fly,  which  was  put  in  motion  by  wheel- 
work,  and  which  flew  about  and  leaped  upon  the  table.  At  an 
entertainment  given  by  this  philosopher  to  some  of  his  familiar 
friends,  the  fly  flew  from  his  hand,  and  after  performing  a  con- 
siderable round,  it  returned  again  to  the  hand  of  its  master. 

The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  after  his  abdication  of  the  throne, 
amused  himself  in  his  later  years  with  automata  of  various  kinds. 
The  artist  whom  he  employed  was  Janellus  Turrianus  of  Cre- 
mona. It  was  his  custom  after  dinner  to  introduce  upon  the  table 
figures  of  armed  men  and  horses.  Some  of  these  beat  drums, 
others  played  upon  flutes,  while  a  third  set  attacked  each  other 
with  spears.  Sometimes  he  let  fly  wooden  sparrows,  which  flew 
back  again  to  their  nest.  He  also  exhibited  corn-mills  so  ex- 
tremely small  that  they  could  be  concealed  in  a  glove,  yet  so 
powerful  that  they  could  grind  in  a  day  as  much  corn  as  would 
supply  eight  men  with  food  for  a  day. 

Camus's  carriage. — The  next  piece  of  mechanism  of  sufficient 
interest  to  merit  our  attention  is  that  which  was  made  by  M.  Ca- 
mus for  the  amusement  of  Louis  XIV.  when  a  child.  It  consisted 
of  a  small  coach,  which  was  drawn  by  two  horses,  and  which 
contained  the  figure  of  a  lady  within,  with  a  footman  and  page 
behind.  When  this  machine  was  placed  at  the  extremity  of  a 
table  of  the  proper  size,  the  coachman  smacked  his  whip,  and  the 
horses  instantly  set  off*,  moving  their  legs  in  a  natural  manner,  and 
drawing  the  coach  after  them.  When  the  coach  reached  the  op- 


452  ANECDOTES, 

posite  edge  of  the  table,  it  turned  sharply  at  a  right  angle,  and 
proceeded  along  the  adjacent  edge.  As  soon  as  it  arrived  oppo- 
site the  place  where  the  king  sat,  it  stopped ;  the  page  descended 
and  opened  the  coach  door  ;  the  lady  alighted,  and  with  a  courtesy 
presented  a  petition,  which  she  held  in  her  hand,  to  the  king. 
After  waiting  some  time  she  again  courtesied  and  re-entered  the 
carriage.  The  page  closed  his  door,  and  having  resumed  his 
place  behind,  the  coachman  whipped  his  horses  and  drove  on. 
The  footman,  who  had  previously  alighted,  ran  after  the  carriage, 
and  jumped  up  behind  into  his  former  place. 

Degennes"1  mechanical  peacock. — Not  content  with  imitating  the 
movements  of  animals,  the  mechanical  genius  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries  ventured  to  perform  by  wheels  and  pinions  the  functions 
of  vitality.  We  are  informed  by  M.  Lobat,  that  General  De- 
gennes, a  French  officer  who  defended  the  colony  of  St.  Christo- 
pher's against  the  English  forces,  constructed  a  peacock  which 
could  walk  about  as  if  alive,  pick  up  grains  of  corn  from  the 
ground,  digest  them  as  if  they  had  been  submitted  to  the  action 
of  the  stomach,  and  afterward  discharge  them  in  an  altered  form. 
Degennes  is  said  to  have  invented  various  machines  of  great  use 
in  navigation  and  gunnery,  and  to  have  constructed  clocks  without 
weights  or  springs. 

Vaucanson^s  duck. — The  automaton  of  Degennes  probably  sug- 
gested to  M.  Vaucanson  the  idea  of  constructing  his  celebrated 
duck,  which  excited  so  much  interest  throughout  Europe,  and 
which  was  perhaps  the  most  wonderful  piece  of  mechanism  that 
was  ever  made.  Vaucanson 's  duck  exactly  resembled  the  living 
animal  in  size  and  appearance.  It  executed  accurately  all  its 
movements  and  gestures,  it  ate  and  drank  with  avidity,  performed 
all  the  quick  motions  of  the  head  and  throat  which  are  peculiar  to 
the  living  animal,  and,  like  it,  it  muddled  the  water  which  it  drank 
with  its  bill.  It  produced  also  the  sound  of  quacking  in  the  most 
natural  manner.  In  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  duck  the 
artist  exhibited  the  highest  skill.  Every  bone  in  the  real  duck 
had  its  representative  in  the  automaton,  and  its  wings  were  ana- 
tomically exact.  Every  cavity,  apophysis,  and  curvature  was 
imitated,  and  each  bone  executed  its  proper  movements.  When 
corn  was  thrown  down  before  it,  the  duck  stretched  out  its  neck 
to  pick  it  up,  it  swallowed  it,  digested  it,  and  discharged  it  in  a 
digested  condition.  The  process  of  digestion  was  effected  by 
chemical  solution,  and  not  by  trituration,  and  the  food  digested  in 
the  stomach  was  conveyed  away  by  tubes  to  the  place  of  its  dis- 
charge. 

The  automata  of  Vaucanson  were  imitated  by  one  Du  Moulin, 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  453 

a  silversmith,  who  travelled  with  them  through  Germany  in  1752, 
arid  who  died  at  Moscow  in  1765.  Beckmann  informs  us  that  he 
saw  several  of  them  after  the  machinery  had  been  deranged ;  but 
that  the  artificial  duck,  which  he  regarded  as  the  most  ingenious, 
was  still  able  to  eat,  drink,  and  move.  Its  ribs,  which  were  made 
of  wire,  were  covered  with  duck^s  feathers,  and  the  motion  was 
communicated  through  the  feet  of  the  duck  by  means  of  a  cylinder 
and  fine  chains  like  that  of  a  watch. 

Drawing  and  writing  automata. — Various  pieces  of  mechanism 
of  wonderful  ingenuity  have  been  constructed  for  the  purposes  of 
drawing  and  writing.  One  of  these,  invented  by  M.  Le  Droz,  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  Droz  ofChaux  le  Fonds,  has  been  described 
by  Mr.  Collinson.  The  figure  was  the  size  of  life.  It  held  in  its 
hand  a  metallic  style,  and  when  a  spring  was  touched  so  as  to  re- 
lease a  detent,  the  figure  immediately  began  to  draw  upon  a  card 
of  Dutch  vellum  previously  laid  under  its  hand.  After  the  draw- 
ing  was  executed  on  the  first  card,  the  figure  rested.  Other  five 
cards  were  then  put  in  in  succession,  and  upon  these  it  delineated 
in  the  same  manner  different  subjects.  On  the  first  card  it  drew 
"  elegant  portraits  and  likenesses  of  the  king  and  queen  facing 
each  other;1'  and  Mr.  Collinson  remarks,  that  it  was  curious  to 
observe  with  what  precision  the  figure  lifted  up  its  pencil  in  its 
transition  from  one  point  of  the  drawing  to  another  without  making 
the  slightest  mistake. 

Maillardefs  conjurer. — M.  Maillardet  has  executed  an  auto- 
maton  which  both  writes  and  draws.  The  figure  of  a  boy  kneel- 
ing  on  one  knee  holds  a  pencil  in  his  hand.  When  the  figure 
begins  to  work,  an  attendant  dips  the  pencil  in  ink,  and  adjusts 
the  drawing-paper  upon  a  brass  tablet.  Upon  touching  a  spring 
the  figure  proceeds  to  write,  and  when  the  line  is  finished  its 
hand  returns  to  dot  and  stroke  the  letters  when  necessary.  In  this 
manner  it  executes  four  beautiful  pieces  of  writing  in  French  and 
English,  and  three  landscapes,  all  of  which  occupy  about  one  hour. 

One  of  the  most  popular  pieces  of  mechanism  which  we  have 
seen  is  the  magician  constructed  by  M.  Maillardet  for  the  purpose 
of  answering  certain  given  questions.  A  figure,  dressed  like  a 
magician,  appears  seated  at  the  bottom  of  a  wall,  holding  a  wand 
in  one  hand  arid  a  book  in  the  other.  A  number  of  questions  ready 
prepared  are  inscribed  on  oval  medallions,  and  the  spectator  takes 
any  of  these  which  he  chooses,  and  to  which  he  wishes  an  answer, 
and  having  placed  it  in  a  drawer  ready  to  receive  it,  the  drawer 
shuts  with  a  spring  till  the  answer  is  returned.  The  magician  then 
rises  from  his  seat,  bows  his  head,  describes  circles  with  his  wand, 
and  consulting  the  book  as  if  in  deep  thought,  he  lifts  it  towards 


454  ANECDOTES, 

his  face.  Having  thus  appeared  to  ponder  over  the  proposed  ques- 
tion, he  raises  his  wand,  and  striking  with  it  the  wall  above  his 
head,  two  folding-doors  fly  open,  and  display  an  appropriate  answer 
to  the  question.  The  doors  again  close,  the  magician  resumes  his 
original  position,  and  the  drawer  opens  to  return  the  medallion. 
There  are  twenty  of  these  medallions,  all  containing  different  ques- 
tions, to  which  the  magician  returns  the  most  suitable  and  striking 
answers.  The  medallions  are  thin  plates  of  brass  of  an  elliptical 
form,  exactly  resembling  each  other.  Some  of  the  medallions  have 
a  question  inscribed  on  each  side,  both  of  which  the  magician  an- 
swers in  succession.  If  the  drawer  is  shut  without  a  medallion 
being  put  into  it,  the  magician  rises,  consults  his  book,  shakes  his 
head,  and  resumes  his  seat.  The  folding-doors  remain  shut,  and 
the  drawer  is  returned  empty.  If  two  medallions  are  put  into  the 
drawer  together,  an  answer  is  returned  only  to  the  lower  one. 
When  the  machinery  is  wound  up,  the  movements  continue  about 
an  hour,  during  which  time  about  fifty  questions  may  be  answered. 
The  inventor  stated  that  the  means  by  which  the  different  medal- 
lions acted  upon  the  machinery,  so  as  to  produce  the  proper  an. 
swers  to  the  questions  which  they  contained,  were  extremely  simple. 

The  same  ingenious  artist  has  constructed  various  other  auto- 
mata, representing  insects  and  other  animals.  One  of  these  was 
a  spider  entirely  made  of  steel,  which  exhibited  all  the  movements 
of  the  animal.  It  ran  on  the  surface  of  a  table  during  three  minutes, 
and  to  prevent  it  from  running  off,  its  course  always  tended  towards 
the  centre  of  the  table.  He  constructed  likewise  a  caterpillar,  a 
lizard,  a  mouse,  and  a  serpent.  The  serpent  crawls  about  in  every 
direction,  opens  its  mouth,  hisses,  and  darts  out  its  tongue. 

Benefits  derived  from  the  passion  for  automata. — Ingenious  and 
beautiful  as  all  these  pieces  of  mechanism  are,  and  surprising  as 
their  effects  appear  even  to  scientific  spectators,  the  principal  object 
of  their  inventors  was  to  astonish  and  amuse  the  public.  We 
should  form  an  erroneous  judgment,  however,  if  we  supposed  that 
this  was  the  only  result  of  the  ingenuity  which  they  displayed.  The 
passion  for  automatic  exhibitions  which  characterized  the  18th 
century,  gave  rise  to  the  most  ingenious  mechanical  devices,  and 
introduced  among  the  higher  orders  of  artists  habits  of  nice  and 
accurate  execution  in  the  formation  of  the  most  delicate  pieces  of 
machinery.  The  same  combination  of  the  mechanical  powers 
which  made  the  spider  crawl,  or  which  waved  the  tiny  rod  of  the 
magician,  contributed  in  future  years  to  purposes  of  higher  import. 
Those  wheels  and  pinions,  which  almost  eluded  our  senses  by  their 
minuteness,  reappeared  in  the  stupendous  mechanism  of  our  spin- 
ning-machines and  our  steam-engines.  The  elements  of  the  turn- 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  455 

bling  puppet  were  revived  in  the  chronometer,  which  now  conducts 
navies  through  the  ocean  ;  and  the  shapeless  wheel  which  directed 
the  hand  of  the  drawing  automaton,  has  served  in  the  present  age 
to  guide  the  movements  of  the  tambouring  engine.  Those  mechani- 
cal wonders  which  in  one  century  enriched  only  the  conjurer  who 
used  them,  contributed  in  another  to  augment  the  wealth  of  the 
nation  ;  and  those  automatic  toys  which  once  amused  the  vulgar, 
are  now  employed  in  extending  the  power  and  promoting  the  civi- 
lization of  our  species.  In  whatever  way,  indeed,  the  power  of 
genius  may  invent  or  combine,  and  to  whatever  low  or  even  ludi- 
crous purposes  that  invention  or  combination  may  be  originally 
applied,  society  receives  a  gift  which  it  can  never  lose  ;  and  though 
the  value  of  the  seed  may  not  be  at  once  recognised,  and  though 
it  may  lie  long  unproductive  in  the  ungenial  till  of  human  know- 
ledge, it  will  some  time  or  other  evolve  its  germ,  and  yield  to  man- 
kind its  natural  and  abundant  harvest. 

Duncan's  tambouring  machine. — The  tambouring  of  muslins,  or 
the  art  of  producing  upon  them  ornamental  flowers  and  figures,  has 
been  long  known  and  practised  in  Britain,  as  well  as  in  other  coun- 
tries ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  the  year  1790  that  it  became  an 
object  of  general  manufacture  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  where  it  was 
chiefly  carried  on.  At  first  it  was  under  the  direction  of  foreigners ; 
but  their  aid  was  not  long  necessary,  and  it  speedily  extended  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  occupy  either  wholly  or  partially  more  than 
20,000  females.  Many  of  these  laborers  lived  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Glasgow,  which  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufacture,  but  others 
were  scattered  through  every  part  of  Scotland,  and  supplied  by 
agents  with  work  and  money.  In  Glasgow,  a  tambourer  of  ordi- 
nary skill  could  not  in  general  earn  more  than  five  or  six  shillings 
a  week  by  constant  application  ;  but  to  a  laboring  artisan,  who  had 
several  daughters,  even  these  low  wages  formed  a  source  of  great 
wealth.  At  the  age  of  five  years,  a  child  capable  of  handling  a 
needle  was  devoted  to  tambouring,  even  though  it  could  not  earn 
more  than  a  shilling  or  two  in  a  week ;  and  the  consequence  of 
this  was,  that  female  children  were  taken  from  school,  and  rendered 
totally  unfit  for  any  social  or  domestic  duty.  The  tambouring 
population  was  therefore  of  the  worst  kind,  and  it  must  have  been 
regarded  as  a  blessing  rather  than  as  a  calamity,  when  the  work 
which  they  performed  was  intrusted  to  regular  machinery. 

Mr.  John  Duncan  of  Glasgow,  the  inventor  of  the  tambouring 
machinery,  was  one  of  those  unfortunate  individuals  who  benefit 
their  species  without  benefiting  themselves,  and  who  died  in  the 
meridian  of  life  the  victim  of  poverty  and  of  national  ingratitude. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  bringing  into  action  a  great  number  of 


456  ANECDOTES, 

needles  at  the  same  time,  in  order  to  shorten  the  process  by  manual 
labor,  but  he  at  first  was  perplexed  about  the  diversification  of  the 
pattern.  This  difficulty,  however,  he  soon  surmounted  by  employ- 
ing two  forces  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  which  gave  him  a  new 
force  in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram,  whose 
sides  were  formed  hy  the  original  forces.  His  first  machine  was 
very  imperfect ;  but  after  two  years1  study  he  formed  a  company, 
at  whose  expense  six  improved  machines  were  put  in  action,  and 
who  secured  the  invention  by  a  patent.  At  this  time  the  idea  of 
rendering  the  machine  automatic  had  scarcely  occurred  to  him ; 
but  he  afterward  succeeded  in  accomplishing  this  great  object,  and 
the  tambouring  machines  were  placed  under  the  surveillance  of  a 
steam-engine.  Another  patent  was  taken  for  these  improvements. 
The  reader  who  desires  to  have  a  minute  account  of  these  improve- 
ments, and  of  the  various  parts  of  the  machinery,  will  be  amply 
gratified  by  perusing  the  inventors  own  account  of  the  machinery 
in  the  article  CHAIN  WORK  in  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia.  At 
present  it  will  be  sufficient  to  state,  that  the  muslin  to  be  tamboured 
was  suspended  vertically  in  a  frame  which  was  capable  of  being 
moved  both  in  a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  direction.  Sixty  or  more 
needles  lying  horizontally  occupied  a  frame  in  front  of  the  muslin 
web.  Each  of  these  working  needles,  as  they  are  called,  was 
attended  by  a  feeding-needle,  which,  by  a  circular  motion  round 
the  working-needle,  lodged  upon  the  stem  of  the  latter  the  loop  of 
the  thread.  The  sixty  needles  then  penetrated  the  web,  and  in 
order  that  they  might  return  again  without  injuring  the  fabric,  the 
barb  or  eye  of  the  needle,  which  resembled  the  barb  of  a  fishing- 
hook,  was  shut  by  a  slider.  The  muslin  web  then  took  a  new 
position  by  means  of  the  machinery  that  gave  it  its  horizontal  and 
vertical  motion,  so  that  the  sixty  needles  penetrated  it  at  their  next 
movement  at  another  point  of  the  figure  or  flower.  This  operation 
went  on  till  sixty  flowers  were  completed.  The  web  was  then 
slightly  wound  up,  that  the  needles  might  be  opposite  that  part  of 
it  on  which  they  were  to  work  another  row  of  flowers. 

The  flowers  were  generally  at  an  inch  distance,  and  the  rows 
were  placed  so  that  the  flowers  formed  what  are  called  diamonds. 
There  were  seventy.two  rows  of  flowers  in  a  yard,  so  that  in  every 
square  yard  there  were  nearly  four  thousand  flowers,  and  in  every 
piece  of  ten  yards  long  forty  thousand.  The  number  of  loops  or 
stitches  in  a  flower  varied  with  the  pattern,  but  on  an  average 
there  were  about  thirty.  Hence  the  number  of  stitches  in  a  yard 
were  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  and  the  number  in  a 
piece  is  one  million  two  hundred  thousand.  The  average  work 
done  in  a  week  by  one  machine  was  fifteen  yards,  or  sixty  thousand 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC  45" 

flowers,  or  one  million  eight  hundred  thousand  stitches ;  and  by 
comparing  this  with  the  work  done  by  one  person  with  the  hand, 
it  appears  that  the  machine  enabled  one  person  to  do  the  work  of 
twenty-four  persons. 

Waifs  statue  turning  machinery. — One  of  the  most  curious  and 
important  applications  of  machinery  to  the  arts  which  has  been 
suggested  in  modern  times  was  made  by  the  late  Mr.  Watt,  in 
the  construction  of  a  machine  for  copying  or  reducing  statues  and 
sculpture  of  all  kinds.  The  art  of  multiplying  busts  and  statues, 
by  casts  in  plaster  of  Paris,  has  been  the  means  of  diffusing  a 
knowledge  of  this  branch  of  the  fine  arts ;  but  from  the  fragile 
nature  of  the  material,  the  copies  thus  produced  were  unfit  for 
exposure  to  the  weather,  and  therefore  ill  calculated  for  ornament- 
ing public  buildings,  or  for  perpetuating  the  memory  of  public 
achievements.  A  machine,  therefore,  which  is  capable  of  multi- 
plying the  labors  of  the  sculptor  in  the  durable  materials  of  mar- 
ble or  of  brass  was  a  desideratum  of  the  highest  value,  and  one 
which  could  have  been  expected  only  from  a  genius  of  the  first 
order.  During  many  years  Mr.  Watt  carried  on  his  labors  in 
secret,  and  he  concealed  even  his  intention  of  constructing  such 
a  machine.  After  he  had  made  considerable  progress  in  its  exe- 
cution, and  had  thought  of  securing  his  invention  by  a  patent,  he 
learned  that  an  ingenious  individual  in  his  own  neighborhood  had 
been  long  occupied  in  the  same  pursuit;  and  Mr.  Watt  informed 
me  that  he  had  every  re'ason  to  believe  that  this  gentleman  was 
entirely  ignorant  of  his  labors.  A  proposal  was  then  made  that 
the  two  inventors  should  combine  their  talents,  and  secure  the 
privilege  by  a  joint  patent ;  but  Mr.  Watt  had  experienced  so  fre- 
quently the  fatal  operation  of  our  patent  Jaws,  that  he  saw  many 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  such  an  arrangement,  and  he  was  un- 
willing, at  his  advanced  age,  to  embark  in  a  project  so  extensive, 
and  which  seemed  to  require  for  its  successful  prosecution  all  the 
ardor  and  ambition  of  a  youthful  mind.  The  scheme  was  there- 
fore abandoned ;  and  such  is  the  unfortunate  operation  of  our 
patent  laws,  that  the  circumstance  of  two  individuals  having  made 
the  same  invention  has  prevented  both  from  bringing  it  to  perfec- 
tion, and  conferring  a  great  practical  benefit  upon  their  species. 
The  machine  which  Mr.  Watt  had  constructed  had  actually  exe- 
cuted some  excellent  pieces  of  work.  I  have  seen  in  his  house 
at  Heathfield  copies  of  basso-relievos,  and  complete  statues  of  a 
small  size ;  and  some  of  his  friends  have  in  their  possession  other 
specimens  of  its  performance. 

Babbage^s  calculating  machine. — Of  all  the  machines  which 
have  been  constructed  in  modern  times,  the  calculating  machine 

33 


45S  ANECDOTES, 

is  doubtless  the  most  extraordinary.  Pieces  of  mechanism  for 
performing  particular  arithmetical  operations  have  been  long  ago 
constructed,  but  these  bear  no  comparison  either  in  ingenuity  or 
in  magnitude  to  the  grand  design  conceived  and  nearly  executed 
by  Mr.  Babbage.  Great  as  the  power  of  mechanism  is  known  to 
be,  yet  we  venture  to  say  that  many  of  the  most  intelligent  of  our 
readers  will  scarcely  admit  it  to  be  possible  that  astronomical 
and  navigation  tables  can  be  accurately  computed  by  machine- 
ry; that  the  machine  can  itself  correct  the  errors  which  it 
may  commit ;  and  that  the  results  of  its  calculations  when  abso- 
lutely free  from  error,  can  be  printed  off,  without  the  aid  of  human 
hands,  or  the  operation  of  human  intelligence.  All  this,  how- 
ever, Mr.  Babbage 's  machine  can  do ;  and  as  I  have  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  seeing  it  actually  calculate,  and  of  studying  its  con- 
struction with  Mr.  Babbage  himself,  I  am  able  to  make  the  above 
statement  on  personal  observation.  The  calculating  machine  now 
constructing  under  the  superintendence  of  the  inventor  has  been 
executed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government,  and  is  of  course 
their  property.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  parts — a  calculating 
part  and  a  printing_part,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  the  fulfil- 
ment of  Mr.  Babbage  1s  views,  for  the  whole  advantage  would  be 
lost  if  the  computations  made  by  the  machine  were  copied  by 
human  hands  and  transferred  to  types  by  the  common  process. 
The  greater  part  of  the  calculating  machinery  is  already  con- 
structed, and  exhibits  workmanship  of  such  extraordinary  skill  and 
beauty  that  nothing  approaching  to  it  has  been  witnessed.  In 
order  to  execute  it,  particularly  those  parts  of  the  apparatus 
which  are  dissimilar  to  any  used  in  ordinary  mechanical  construc- 
tions, tools  and  machinery  of  great  expense  and  complexity  have 
been  invented  and  constructed  ;  and  in  many  instances  contrivan- 
ces of  singular  ingenuity  have  been  resorted  to,  which  cannot 
fail  to  prove  extensively  useful  in  various  branches  of  the  me- 
chanical  arts. 

The  drawings  of  this  machinery,  which  form  a  large  part  of 
the  work,  and  on  which  all  the  contrivance  has  been  bestowed, 
and  all  the  alterations  made,  cover  upwards  of  four  hundred  square 
feet  of  surface,  and  are  executed  with  extraordinary  care  and 
precision. 

In  so  complex  a  piece  of  mechanism,  in  which  interrupted- 
motions  are  propagated  simultaneously  along  a  great  variety  of 
trains  of  mechanism,  it  might  have  been  supposed  that  obstruc- 
tions would  arise,  or  even  incompatibilities  occur,  from  the  im- 
practicability of  foreseeing  all  the  possible  combinations  of  the 
parts ;  but  this  doubt  has  been  entirely  removed,  by  the  constant 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  459 

employment  of  a  system  of  mechanical  notation  invented  by  Mr. 
Babbage,  which  places  distinctly  in  view  at  every  instant  the  pro- 
gress  of  motion  through  all  the  parts  of  this  or  any  other  ma- 
chine ;  and  by  writing  down  in  tables  the  times  required  for  all  the 
movements,  this  method  renders  it  easy  to  avoid  all  risk  of  two 
opposite  actions  arriving  at  the  same  instant  at  any  part  of  the 
engine. 

In  the  printing  part  of  the  machine  less  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  actual  execution  than  in  the  calculating  part.  The 
cause  of  this  is  the  greater  difficulty  of  its  contrivance,  not  for 
transferring  the  computations  from  the  calculating  part  to  the 
copper  or  other  plate  destined  to  receive  it,  but  for  giving  to  the 
plate  itself  that  number  and  variety  of  movements  which  the  forms 
adopted  in  printed  tables  may  call  for  in  practice. 

The  practical  object  of  the  calculating  engine  is  to  compute  and 
print  a  great  variety  and  extent  of  astronomical  and  navigation 
tables,  which  could  not  be  done  without  enormous  intellectual  and 
manual  labor,  and  which,  even  if  executed  by  such  labor,  could 
not  be  calculated  with  the  requisite  accuracy.  Mathematicians, 
astronomers,  and  navigators  do  not  require  to  be  informed  of  the 
real  value  of  such  tables ;  but  it  may  be  proper  to  state,  for  the 
information  of  others,  that  seventeen  large  folio  volumes  of  lo- 
garithmic tables  alone  were  calculated  at  an  enormous  expense 
by  the  French  government ;  and  that  the  British  government  re- 
garded these  tables  to  be  of  such  national  value,  that  they  pro- 
posed to  the  French  Board  of  Longitude  to  print  an  abridgment 
of  them  at  the  joint  expense  of  the  two  nations,  and  offered  to 
advance  £5000  for  that  purpose.  Besides  logarithmic  tables,  Mr. 
Babbage 's  machine  will  calculate  tables  of  the  powers  and  products 
of  numbers,  and  all  astronomical  tables  for  determining  the  posi- 
tions of  the  sun,  moon,  arid  planets  ;  and  the  same  mechanical 
principles  have  enabled  him  to  integrate  innumerable  equations  of 
finite  differences,  that  is,  when  the  equation  of  differences  is  given, 
he  can,  by  setting  an  engine,  produce  at  the  end  of  a  given  time 
any  distant  term  which  may  be  required,  or  any  succession  of 
terms  commencing  at  a  distant  point. 

Besides  the  cheapness  and  celerity  with  which  this  machine 
will  perform  its  work,  the  absolute  accuracy  of  the  printed  results 
deserves  especial  notice.  By  peculiar  contrivances,  any  small 
error  produced  by  accidental  dust  or  by  any  slight  inaccuracy  in 
one  of  the  wheels,  is  corrected  as  soon  as  it  is  transmitted  to  the 
next,  and  this  is  done  in  such  a  manner  as  effectually  to  prevent 
any  accumulation  of  small  errors  from  producing  an  erroneous 
figure  in  the  result. 


400  ANECDOTES, 


Description  of  the  Automaton  Chess-player. 

The  Chess  Automaton  was  the  sole  invention  of  Wolffgang  de 
Kempelen,  a  Hungarian  gentleman,  Aulic  counsellor  to  the  royal 
chamber  of  the  domains  of  the  emperor  in  Hungary,  and  celebra- 
ted for  great  genius  in  every  department  of  mechanics.  From  a 
boy,  he  had  trod  in  the  path  of  science,  and  was  incontestably  of 
first-rate  capabilities  as  a  mechanician  and  engineer.  Invention 
was  his  hobby,  and  he  rode  it  furiously,  even  to  the  partial  impov- 
erishment of  his  means.  M.  de  Kempelen,  being  at  Vienna  in  the 
year  1796,  was  invited  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  to  be  pres- 
ent at  the  representation  of  certain  magnetic  games,  or  experiments, 
about  to  be  shown  in  public  at  the  imperial  court  by  M.  Pelletier, 
a  Frenchman.  During  the  exhibition,  De  Kempelen,  being  hon- 
ored by  a  long  conversation  with  his  sovereign,  was  induced  casu- 
ally to  mention  that  he  thought  he  could  construct  a  machine,  the 
powers  of  which  should  be  far  more  surprising,  and  the  deception 
more  complete,  than  all  the  wonders  of  magnetism  just  displayed 
by  Pelletier.  At  this  declaration,  the  curiosity  of  the  empress  was 
naturally  excited  ;  and,  with  true  female  eagerness  for  novelty,  she 
drew  from  De  Kempelen  a  promise  to  gratify  her  wishes,  by  pre- 
paring an  early  and  practical  proof  of  his  bold  assertion.  The 
artist  returned  to  his  modest  d welling  at  Presburg,  and  girded  up 
his  loins  to  the  task.  Ho  kept  his  word  with  his  imperial  mistress ; 
and  in  the  following  year  presented  himself  once  more  at  the  court 
of  Vienna,  accompanied  by  the  Automaton  Chess-player.  Need 
we  say  that  its  success  was  triumphantly  complete  1 

The  Chess-player  was  a  figure  as  large  as  life,,  clothed  in  a  Turk- 
ish  dress,  sitting  behind  a  large  square  chest  or  box,  three  feet  and  a 
half  long,  two  feet  deep,  and  two  and  a  half  high.  The  machine 
ran  on  castors,  and  was  either  seen  on  the  floor  when  the  doors 
of  the  apartment  were  thrown  open,  or  was  wheeled  into  the  room 
previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  exhibition.  The  Turkish 
Chess-player  sat  on  a  chair  fixed  to  the  square  chest ;  his  right 
arm  rested  on  the  table,  and  in  the  left  he  held  a  pipe,  which  was 
removed  during  the  game,  as  it  was  with  that  he  made  the  moves. 
A  chess-board  eighteen  inches  square,  and  bearing  the  usual  num- 
ber of  pieces,  was  placed  before  the  figure.  The  exhibiter  then 
announced  to  the  spectators  his  intention  of  showing  the  mechan- 
ism :  and  after  having  unlocked  the  doors  and  shown  every  part 
of  the  machine,  to  prove  that  it  was  impossible  for  any  one  to  be 
concealed  within,  the  Automaton  was  ready  for  play.  An  oppo- 
nent having  been  found  among  the  company,  the  figure  took  the 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  461 

first  move.  At  every  move  made  by  the  Automaton,  the  wheels 
of  the  machine  were  heard  in  action ;  the  figure  moved  its  head, 
and  seemed  to  look  over  every  part  of  the  chess-board.  When 
it  gave  its  check  to  its  opponent,  it  shook  its  head  thrice,  and  only 
twice  when  it  checked  the  queen.  It  likewise  shook  its  head  when 
a  false  move  was  made,  replaced  the  adversary^  piece  on  the 
square  from  which  it  was  taken,  and  took  the  next  move  itself. 
In  general,  though  not  always,  it  won  the  game. 

During  the  progress  of  the  game  the  exhibiter  often  stood  near 
the  machine,  and  wound  it  up  like  a  clock  after  it  had  made  ten 
or  twelve  moves.  At  other  times  he  went  to  a  corner  of  the  room, 
as  if  it  were  to  consult  a  small  square  box,  which  stood  open  for 
this  purpose. 

The  chess-playing  machine,  as  thus  described,  was  exhibited 
after  its  completion  in  Presburg,  Vienna,  and  Paris,  to  thousands, 
and  in  1783  and  1784  it  was  exhibited  in  London  and  different 
parts  of  England,  without  the  secret  of  its  movements  having  been 
discovered.  Its  ingenious  inventor,  who  was  a  gentleman  and  a 
man  of  education,  never  pretended  that  the  Automaton  itself  really 
played  the  game.  On  the  contrary,  he  distinctly  stated  "  that  the 
machine  was  a  bagatelle,  which  was  not  without  merit  in  point  of 
mechanism,  but  that  the  effects  of  it  appeared  so  marvellous  only 
from  the  boldness  of  the  conception,  and  the  fortunate  choice  of 
the  methods  adopted  for  promoting  the  illusion." 

Upon  considering  the  operations  of  this  Automaton,  it  must  have 
been  obvious  that  the  game  of  chess  was  performed  rither  by  a 
person  enclosed  in  the  chest  or  by  the  exhibiter  himself.  The  first 
of  these  hypotheses  was  ingeniously  excluded  by  the  display  of  the 
interior  of  the  machine  ;  for  as  every  part  contained  more  or  less 
machinery,  the  spectator  invariably  concluded  that  the  smallest 
dwarf  could  not  be  accommodated  within,  and  this  idea  was 
strengthened  by  the  circumstance  that  no  person  of  this  descrip- 
tion could  be  discovered  in  the  suite  of  the  exhibiter.  Hence  the 
conclusion  was  drawn  that  the  exhibiter  actuated  the  machine  either 
by  mechanical  means  conveyed  through  its.  feet,  or  by  a  magnet 
concealed  in  the  body  of  the  exhibiter.  That  mechanical  com- 
munication  was  not  formed  between  the  exhibiter  and  the  figure 
was  obvious  from  the  fact  that  no  such  communication  was  visible, 
and  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  place  the  machine  on  any  partic. 
ular  part  of  the  floor.  Hence  the  opinion  became  very  prevalent 
that  the  agent  was  a  magnet ;  but  even  this  supposition  was  exclu- 
ded, for  the  exhibiter  allowed  a  strong  and  well-armed  loadstone 
to  be  placed  upon  the  machine  during  the  progress  of  the  game  : 
had  the  moving  power  been  a  magnet,  the  whole  action  of  the  ma- 

33* 


462  ANECDOTES, 

chine  would  have  been  deranged  by  the  approximation  of  a  load, 
stone  concealed  in  the  pockets  of  any  of  the  spectators. 

The  Chess-player  continued  the  wonder  of  all  Europe  for  a 
period  of  over  sixty  years,  without  the  secret  of  its  movement 
being  divulged,  though  many  were  the  attempts  to  unravel  the 
mystery.  It  was  exhibited  in  all  the  courts  of  Europe,  and  even 
kings  condescended  to  try  a  game.  Among  other  monarchs  whose 
curiosity  was  excited  was  Eugene  Beauharnois,  then  king  of  Ba- 
varia, who  bought  the  machine  in  order  to  ascertain  the  secret. 
Dismissing  his  courtiers  from  the  room,  the  king  then  locked  the 
door,  and  every  precaution  was  taken  to  ensure  his  acquiring  a  sole 
knowledge  of  the  hidden  enigma.  The  prince  was  left  alone  with 
the  demonstrator »  the  latter  then  unhesitatingly  and  in  silence 
flung  open  simultaneously  all  the  doors  of  the  chest ;  and  prince 
Eugene  saw — what  he  saw  ! 

Napoleon,  himself  a  chess-player,  honored  the  Automaton  by 
playing  a  game  in  person  against  it.  The  contest  was  marked  by 
an  interesting  circumstance.  Half  a  dozen  moves  had  barely 
been  made,  when  Bonaparte,  purposely,  to  test  the  powers  of  the 
machine,  committed  a  false  move  ;  the  Automaton  bowed,  repla- 
ced the  offending  piece,  and  motioned  to  Napoleon  that  he  should 
move  correctly.  Highly  amused,  after  a  few  minutes  the  French 
chief  again  played  an  illegal  move.  This  time  the  Automaton 
without  hesitation  snatched  off  the  piece  which  had  moved  falsely, 
confiscated  it,  and  made  his  own  move.  Bonaparte  laughed,  and 
for  the  third  time,  as  if  to  put  the  patience  of  his  antagonist  to  a 
severe  trial,  played  a  false  move.  The  Automaton  raised  his  arm, 
swept  the  whole  of  the  pieces  from  the  board,  and  declined  contin- 
uing the  game  ! 

While  the  machine  was  exhibiting  in  England,  in  1785,  a  Mr. 
Philip  Thicknesse  printed  a  pamphlet  in  which  he  denounced  the 
Automaton  as  a  piece  of  imposture  in  no  measured  terms.  He  as- 
sumed that  a  child  was  confined  in  the  chest,  from  ten  to  fourteen 
years  of  age,  who  played  the  game  ;  but  added,  absurdly  enough, 
that  Master  Johnny  saw  the  state  of  the  board  reflected  from  a 
looking-glass  in  the  ceiling.  He  had  previously  discovered  a  case 
of  curious  imposture  worth  quoting. 

"  Forty  years  since,1'  writes  Thicknesse,  "  I  found  three  hun- 
dred people  assembled  to  see,  at  a  shilling  each,  a  coach  go  with- 
out horses.  Mr.  Quin,  the  Duke  of  Athol,  and  many  persons 
present,  were  angry  with  me  for  saying  that  it  was  trod  round  by 
a  man  within  the  hinder  wheel ;  but  a  small  paper  of  snuff  put  into 
the  wheel,  soon  convinced  all  around  that  it  could  not  only  move, 
but  sneeze,  too,  like  a  Christian  /"  We  wonder  how  De  Kempelen 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  463 

would  have  met  a  proposition  to  throw  an  ounce  or  two  of  «snuff 
upon  speculation  among  his  springs  and  levers  ? 

Notwithstanding  all  the  attempts,  the  secret  of  the.  Automaton 
Chess-player  was  never  solved,  until  one  of  the  persons  implicated 
in  the  fraud  turned  king's  evidence.  Several  persons  almost  hit 
the  mark  ;  but  none  fairly  planted  his  arrow  in  the  gold.  The  man 
who  really  played  the  Chess -Automaton  was  concealed  in  the  chest 
Such,  in  half  a  dozen  words,  is  the  sum  and  substance  of  the  whole 
truth  of  the  contrivance ;  but  the  manner  in  which  his  conceal- 
ment was  managed  is  as  curious  as  it  is  ingenious. 

He  sat  on  a  low  species  of  stool,  moving  on  castors,  or  wheels, 
and  had  every  facility  afforded  him  of  changing  and  shifting  his 
position,  like  an  eel.  While  one  part  of  the  machine  was  shown 
to  the  public,  he  took  refuge  in  another ;  now  lying  down,  now 
kneeling ;  placing  his  body  in  all  sorts  of  positions,  studied  be- 
forehand, and  all  assumed  in  regular  rotation,  like  the  A  B  c  of  a 
catechism.  The  interior  pieces  of  clock-work — the  wheels  and 
make-weight  apparatus,  were  all  equally  moveable  ;  and  additional 
assistance  was  thus  yielded  to  the  fraud.  Even  the  trunk  of  the 
Automaton  was  used  as  a  hiding-place,  in  its  turn,  for  part  of  the 
player's  body.  A  very  short  amount  of  practice,  by  way  of  re- 
hearsal, was  found  sufficient  to  meet  the  purposes  of  the  occasion ; 
and  one  regular  order  being  observed  by  the  two  confederates  as 
to  the  opening  the  machine,  a  mistake  rarely  or  never  occurred. 
Should  any  thing  go  radically  wrong,  the  prisoner  had  the  means 
of  telegraphing  his  jailer,  and  the  performance  could  be  sus- 
pended. 

"  But,"  says  the  reader,  "  what  becomes  of  the  vast  apparatus 
of  wheels,  springs,  levers,  and  caskets  1  Why  did  Maelzel  require 
to  wind  up  his  man  of  wood  and  brass  ?"  The  answer  is  short. 
These  things  were  the  dust  thrown  in  the  eyes  of  the  public.  The 
mind  of  the  gaping  spectator  dwelt  on  the  sound  of  the  springs 
and  wheels,  and  was  thus  diverted  from  the  main  question.  Every 
adjunct  that  intellect  could  devise  was  skilfully  superadded,  to  en- 
hance the  marvel.  The  machine  was  railed  off,  for  a  now  tolera- 
bly clear  reason  ;  and  a  lighted  candle  having  been  first  introduced 
into  the  body  of  the  Automaton,  to  show  the  interior,  at  a  moment 
nothing  could  be  seen,  was  purposely  left  burning  close  at  hand,  in 
order  to  prevent  any  inopportune  rays  of  light  flashing  from  the 
interior,  where  a  second  candle  was  necessarily  in  process  of 
ignition. 

The  director  of  the  Automaton  was  quietly  seated,  then,  in  the 
interior.  All  public  inspection  over,  and  the  doors  being  safely 
closed,  he  had  only  to  make  himself  as  comfortable  as  he  could 


464  ANECDOTES, 

under  the  existing  circumstances.  A  wax  candle  supplied  him  with 
light,  which  the  candle  burning  outside  prevented  being  observed ; 
and  due  measures  were  taken  that  he  should  .not  die  for  want  of 
oxygen.  Whether  he  was  furnished  with  meat,  and  wine,  these 
deponents  say  not. 

To  direct  the  arm  of  the  Automaton,  the  concealed  confederate 
had  but  to  set  in  motion  a  simple  sort  of  spring,  which  caused  its 
fingers  to  grasp  the  man  he  chose  to  play,  and  guide  it  to  the  per- 
formance of  its  task.  To  make  the  figure  articulate  check,  nod 
its  head,  or  perform  other  fooleries,  similar  strings,  or  wires,  re- 
quired but  a  pull.  It  must  be  observed,  that  care  was  taken  that 
the  performance  should  never  last  so  long  as  to  fatigue  the  player 
to  exhaustion.  We  have  before  remarked,  that  the  Automaton's 
chess-board  and  men  were  placed  in  public  view  before  him.  The 
concealed  player  possessed  in  the  interior  a  second,  and  smaller 
board,  with  the  men  pegged,  into  it,  as  if  for  travelling.  On  this 
he  repeated  the  move  played  by  the  antagonist  of  the  Automaton, 
and  on  this  he  likewise  concocted  his  scheme  of  action,  and  made 
his  answer  before  playing  it  on  the  Automaton's  own  board. 

A  very  interesting  and  ingenious  part  of  the  secret  consists  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  move  played  by  the  stranger  was  com- 
municated to  the  concealed  artist ;  and  on  this,  in  point  of  reality, 
turned  the  whole  thing.  A  third  chess-board,  blank,  with  the 
squares  numbered  according  to  the  usual  mode  of  chess  notation, 
was  fixed,  as  it  were,  in  the  ceiling  of  the  interior ;  thus  forming 
the  reverse  of  the  table  on  which  the  Automaton  really  appeared 
to  play.  Now  the  men  with  which  the  Automaton  conducted  his 
game,  were  all  duly  magnetized  at  the  foot ;  and  the  move  being 
made  above,  the  magnets  on  the  pieces  moved  set  in  motion  cer- 
tain knobs,  or  metallic  indices,  adapted  to  each  square  of  the  board 
on  the  reverse  ;  and  thus  was  the  requisite  knowledge  of  the  move 
played  communicated  to  Jack-in-.the-box.  To  illustrate  this  more 
clearly  would  require  the  aid  of  engravings ;  but  we  have  given 
the  explanation  at  least  sufficiently  distinct  for  our  purpose.  The 
real  Simon  Pure,  shut  up  in  his  cell,  saw  by  the  light  of  his  taper 
the  metallic  knobs  or  indices  above,  vibrating,  so  as  to  mark  the 
move  just  played.  He  repeated  this  move  on  his  own  little  board, 
calculated  his  answering  "  coup,'1'1  and  guided  the  Automaton's  fin- 
gers, in  order  to  its  being  duly  performed.  The  happy  association 
of  magnetism  with  the  figure,  thus  hit  upon  by  De  Kempelen,  was 
probably  suggested  to  him  by  the  magnetic  experiments  of  Pelle- 
tier,  at  the  court  of  the  empress. 

Tedious  as  a  "  twice  told  tale,"  is  the  dwelling  too  long  on  the 
reading  of  a  riddle.  When  known,  its  solution  seems  simple 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  465 

enough ;  but  the  difficulty  lies  in  its  original  construction.  The 
Automaton  Chess-player  affords  strong  evidence  of  the  fallibility 
of  human  judgment  and  human  testimony.  Thousands  of  individ- 
uals have  seen  its  performance,  who  would  have  had  no  scruple 
about  taking  their  oaths  that  they  had  viewed  the  whole  of  the  en- 
gine at  once.  In  this  respect,  the  ingenuity  displayed  by  its  origi- 
nal constructor  is  above  praise.  Man  loves  so  to  be  duped  ! 

The  history  of  the  Chess-playing  Automaton,  subsequently  to 
1820,  may  be  shortly  summed  up.  Having  travelled  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  it  was  transported  to  the  United  States  of 
America',  where  for  a  time  it  proved  that  the  natives  of  the  New 
World  were  made  of  the  same  stuff  as  their  elder  brethren.  Jon- 
athan dropped  his.  dollars  freely  ;  and  the  calculating  spirit  of  the 
land  of  stripes  and  stars,  slumbered  beneath  the  spell  of  MaelzeFs 
magic.  A  German  accompanied  it,  as  holding  the  important  post 
of  invisible  demonstrator,  ordinary  and  extraordinary. 

Carrying  out  the  same  principle  of  conduct,  the  Automaton  sub- 
sequently took  to  playing  whist,  as  well  as  chess.  For  some  years, 
latterly,  the  figure  has  lain  in  a  state  of  inglorious  repose  in  a 
warehouse  at  New  Orleans  ;  and  there  we  leave  him,  fearing  the 
word  resurgam  may  not  be  applied  to  its  escutcheon.  A  similar 
bubble  once  blown  becomes  forever  exploded  in  its  pristine  form. 

Many  must  be  the  adventures  of  the  Automaton,  lost,  unhappi- 
ly, to  the  knowledge  of  man.  A  being  that  kept  so  much  good 
company,  during  so  long  a  space  of  time,  must,  indeed,  have  gone 
through  an  infinity  of  interesting  events.  In  this  age  of  autobiog- 
raphy, when  so  many  wooden  men  and  women  have  the  assurance 
to  thrust  their  personal  memoirs  on  the  world,  a  book  on  the  life 
and  adventures  of  the  Automaton  Chess-player  would  surely  be 
received  with  proportionate  interest.  We  ourselves  recollect  once 
hearing  some  amusing  anecdotes  of  the  thing  from  Mouret  him- 
self, the  individual  who  for  many  years  was  concealed  within  the 
machine.  Our  limits  permit  our  quoting  but  a  couple  of  these 
logwood  reminiscences,  which  we  quote  by  way  of  wind-up. 

In  a  journey  once  through  a  remote  part  of  Germany,  the  Au- 
tomaton set  up  his  tent  in  a  small  town,  where  a  professor  of 
legerdemain  being  already  in  possession  of  the  field,  a  clash  between 
the  interests  of  the  two  parties  was  unavoidable.  The  Automaton, 
as  the  monster  of  the  late  arrival,  naturally  put  the  conjurer  on 
the  shelf;  and  the  poor  Hocus-pocus,  in  the  energies  developed  by 
famine,  conversant  as  he  was  with  the  art  he  professed,  discovered 
his  rival's  secret  the  first  time  he  witnessed  the  show.  Backed  by 
an  accomplice,  the  conjurer  raised  a  sudden  cry  of  "  Fire  !  fire  /" 
The  spectators  began  to  rush  forth  in  alarm  ;  and  the  Automaton, 


466  ANECDOTES, 

violently  impelled  by  the  struggles  of  its  inward  man,  suddenly 
rolled  head  over  heels  on  the  floor.  Maelzel  flew  to  the  rescue 
and  dropped  the  curtain,  before  terror  had  quite  driven  the  impris- 
oned imp  to  burst  its  chain,  and  rush  to  daylight. 

On  another  occasion,  Messrs.  Maelzel  and  Mouret  were  exhibit. 
ing  the  Automaton  at  Amsterdam,  when  it  happened  that  the 
former  was  indebted  in  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  relatively 
speaking,  to  his  agent  for  his  services.  In  fact,  Maelzel,  acting 
on  the  philosophical  aphorism  of  "  base  is  the  slave  who  pays," 
had  not  given  poor  Mouret  a  shilling  for  a  twelvemonth  ;  and  the 
latter  found  that,  although  a  spirit  of  darkness,  he  could  not  live 
upon  air.  Mouret  was  lodged  and  boarded,  but  wanted  also  to  eat. 
It  so  chanced,  under  these  circumstances,  that  one  day  the  king  of 
Holland  sent  a  messenger  to  engage  the  chief  part  of  the  exhibi- 
tion-hall, that  morning,  for  himself  and  court ;  and  kindly  seconded 
his  royal  command  by  the  sum  of  three  thousand  florins,  sent  by 
the  same  courier.  Maelzel  proclaims  the  good  tidings  ;  a  splen- 
did breakfast  is  prepared  ;  Mouret  is  pressed  to  eat  and  drink  ;  and 
the  parties  are  naturally  delighted  at  the  pleasing  prospect  of  check- 
mating royalty.  Maelzel  hastens  to  arrange  every  preparation  for 
receiving  the  Dutch  monarch  with  "  all  the  honors."  The  exhibition 
was  to  commence  at  half-past  twelve ;  but,  although  noon  had 
struck  on  every  clock  in  the  city,  Mouret  was  not  at  his  post. 
Maelzel  inquires  the  reason,  and  is  told  that  Mouret  has  got  a 
fever,  and  gone  to  bed.  The  German  flew  to  the  Frenchman's 
chamber,  and  found  half  the  story  at  least  tp  be  correct ;  for  there, 
sure  enough,  lay  Mouret,  snugly  tucked  up  in  the  blankets. 

"  What  is  the  meaning  of  this  ?" 

"  I  have  a  fever." 

"  But  you  were  very  well  just  now  ?" 

"Yes;  but  this  disorder — O  del! — has  come  on  suddenly." 

"  But  the  king  is  coming." 

"  Let  him  go  back  again  !" 

"  But  what  shall  I  say  to  him  ?" 

"  Tell  him — mon  Dieu! — the  Automaton  has  a  sore  throat." 

"  Can  you  jest  at  such  a  moment  ?  Consider  the  money  I  have 
received,  and  that  we  shall  have  the  saloon  full." 

"  Well,  Mynheer  Maelzel,  you  can  return  the  money." 

"  Pray,  pray,  get  up  !" 

"I  cannot." 

"  VVhat  can  I  do  to  restore  you  ?" 

"  Pay  me  the  fifteen  hundred  francs  you  owe  me  I" 

"  This  evening  ?" 

" No;  pay  me  now — this  moment,  or  I  leave  not  my  bed !" 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  469 

The  case  was  urgent,  and  the  means  of  restoration  to  health, 
however  desperate,  must  be  adopted.  With  a  heavy  sigh,  Mael- 
zel  told  down  the  cash  ;  and  never  had  the  Automaton  played  with 
so  much  inward  unction  as  he  did  that  morning.  The  king  declin- 
ed compromising  royalty  by  entering  the  lists  himself;  but  placed 
his  minister-of-war  in  the  opposition  chair,  and  graciously  conde- 
scended to  offer  his  royal  advice  in  each  critical  situation  of  the 
pieces.  The  coalition  was  beaten,  and  the  surrounding  courtiers, 
of  course,  attributed  defeat  solely  to  the  bad  play  of  the  minister- 
of-war  ! 


Chinese  Bamboo  Irrigation-wheel. 

The  Chinese  irrigation-wheel,  which  is  turned  by  the  current  of 
the  stream,  varies  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  or  more  in  height, 
according  to  the  elevation  of  the  bank  ;  and  when  once  erected,  a 
constant  supply  of  water  is  poured  by  it  into  a  trough,  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  river's  side,  and  conducted  in  channels  to  all  parts  of  the 
sugar  plantations.  One  is  at  a  loss  which  most  to  admire,  the 
cleverness  and  efficiency,  or  the  cheapness  and  simplicity  of  the 
contrivance. 

The  props  of  the  wheel  are  of  timber,  and  the  axis  is  a  cylinder 
of  the  same  material ;  but  every  other  portion  of  the  machine  ex- 
hibits some  modification  or  other  of  the  bamboo,  even  to  the  fasten- 
ings and  bindings,  for  not  a  single  nail  or  piece  of  metal  enters  into 
its  composition.  The  wheel  consists  of  two  rims  of  unequal  diame- 
ter, of  which  the  one  next  the  bank  is  rather  the  least.  "  This 
double  wheel,"  observes  Staunton,  "  is  connected  with  the  axis  by 
sixteen  or  eighteen  spokes  of  bamboo,  obliquely  inserted  near  each 
extremity  of  the  axis,  and  crossing  each  other  at  about  two-thirds 
of  their  length.  They  are  there  strengthened  by  a  concentric 
circle,  and  fastened  afterwards  to  the  rims ;  the  spokes  inserted  in 
the  interior  extremity  of  the  axis  (or  that  next  to  the  bank,)  reach- 
ing the  outer  rim,  and  those  proceeding  from  the  exterior  extremity 
of  the  same  axis  reaching  the  inner  and  smaller  rim.  Between 
the  rims  and  the  crossings  of  the  spokes  is  woven  a  kind  of  close 
basket-work,  serving  as  ladle-boards,"  which  are  acted  upon  by 
the  current  of  the  stream,  and  turn  the  wheel  round. 

The  whole  diameter  of  the  wheel  being  something  greater  than 
the  height  of  the  bank,  about  sixteen  or  twenty  hollow  bamboos, 
closed  at  one  end,  are  fastened  to  the  circumference,  to  act  as 
buckets.  These,  however,  are  not  loosely  suspended,  but  firmly 
attached  with  their  open  mouths  towards  the  inner  or  smaller  rim 


470  ANECDOTES, 

of  the  wheel,  at  such  an  inclination,  that  when  dipping  below  the 
water  their  mouths  are  slightly  raised  from  the  horizontal  position ; 
as  they  rise  through  the  air  their  position  approaches  the  upright 
sufficiently  near  to  keep  a  considerable  portion  of  the  contents 
within  them  ;  but,  when  they  have  reached  the  summit  of  the  revo- 
lution, the  mouths  become  enough  depressed  to  pour  the  water  into 
a  large  trough  placed  on  a  level  with  the  bank  to  receive  it.  The 
impulse  of  the  stream  on  the  ladle-boards  at  the  circumference  of 
the  wheel,  with  a  radius  of  about  fifteen  feet,  is  sufficient  to  over- 
come  the  resistance  arising  from  the  difference  of  weight  between 
the  ascending  and  descending,  or  loaded  and  unloaded,  sides  of 
the  wheel.  This  impulse  is  increased,  if  necessary,  at  the  parti- 
cular  spot  where  each  wheel  is  erected,  by  damming  the  stream, 
and  even  raising  the  level  of  the  water  where  it  turns  the  wheel. 
When  the  supply  of  water  is  not  required  over  the  adjoining  fields, 
the  trough  is  merely  turned  aside  or  removed,  and  the  wheel  con- 
tinues its  stately  motion,  the  water  from  the  tubes  pouring  back 
again  down  its  sides.  These  wheels  extend,  on  the  river  Kan-keang, 
from  the  neighborhood  of  the  pass  to  a  considerable  distance  down 
its  stream  towards  the  lake,  and  they  were  so  numerous  that  we 
never  saw  less  than  thirty  in  a  day.  It  is  calculated  that  one  of 
them  will  raise  upwards  of  three  hundred  tons  of  water  in  the  four- 
and-twenty  hours.  Viewed  merely  in  regard  to  their  object,  the 
Persian  wheel,  and  the  machines  used  for  raising  water  in  the 
Tyrol,  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  one  just  described,  but,  as 
observed  by  Staunton,  "  they  are  vastly  more  expensive,  less  sim- 
ple in  construction,  as  well  as  less  ingenious  in  contrivance." 


Discovery  of  Gunpoivder,  and  Inventions  arising  therefrom. 

It  is  not  known  with  accuracy  at  what  time  gunpowder  was  dis- 
covered. The  Chinese  were  acquainted  with  it  at  a  very  early 
period.  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  invention  of  cannon,  that  iron 
balls  were  used.  Muskets  were  not  used  until  the  year  1521.  The 
Spaniards  first  armed  their  foot  soldiers  in  this  manner.  They 
used  matchlocks :  firelocks  were  not  used  until  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century, — that  is,  one  hundred  and  eighty  years 
after  muskets  were  invented.  Even  then,  the  great  Marshal  Saxe 
had  so  little  confidence  in  the  efficacy  of  a  flint,  that  he  ordered  a 
matchlock  to  be  added  to  the  lock  with  a  flint,  lest  the  flint  should 
miss  fire  :  such  is  the  force  of  habit  on  the  human  mind.  Bayonets 
derive  their  name  from  the  town  of  Bayonne,  in  France,  where 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  471 

they  were  introduced  about  1 673.  They  came  in  use  among  the 
English  grenadiers  in  the  reign  of  James  the  Second.  Many  such 
are  yet  to  be  seen  in  the  small  armory  at  the  Tower  of  London. 
The  use  of  them,  fastened  to  the  muzzle  of  the  firelock,  was  also 
a  French  improvement,  first  adopted  about  1690.  It  was  accom- 
panied in  1693,  at  the  battle  of  Marseille,  in  Piedmont,  by  a  dread, 
ful  slaughter,  and  its  use  universally  adopted  by  the  rest  of  Europe 
in  the  war  of  the  succession. 


A  few  Remarks  on  the  Relation  which  subsists  between  a  MacJune 
and  its  Model. 

The  following  remarks  by  Edward  Sang,  a  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics in  Edinburgh,  are  very  interesting,  as  demonstrating  the 
relation  between  a  machine  and  its  model, — a  subject  which  is, 
perhaps,  not  generally  well  understood : — 

"  At  first  sight,  a  well-constructed  model  presents  a  perfect  re- 
presentation of  the  disposition  and  proportion  of  the  parts  of  a 
machine,  and  of  their  mode  of  action. 

"  Misled  by  the  alluring  appearance,  one  is  apt,  without  entering 
minutely  into  the  inquiry,  also  to  suppose  that  the  performance  of 
a  model  is,  in  all  cases,  commensurate  with  that  of  the  machine 
which  it  is  formed  to  represent.  Ignorant  of  the  inaccuracy  of 
such  an  idea,  too  many  of  our  ablest  mechanicians  and  best  work- 
men waste  their  time  and  abilities  on  contrivances  which,  though 
they  perform  well  on  the  small  scale,  must,  from  their  very  nature, 
fail  when  enlarged.  Were  such  people  acquainted  with  the  mode 
of  computing  the  effects,  or  had  they  a  knowledge  of  natural  phi- 
losophy, sufficient  to  enable  them  to  understand  the  basis  on  which 
such  calculations  are  founded,  we  should  see  fewer  crude  and  im- 
practicable schemes  prematurely  thrust  upon  the  attention  of  the 
public.  This  knowledge,  however,  they  are  too  apt  to  regard  as 
unimportant,  or  as  difficult  of  attainment.  They  are  startled  by 
the  absurd  distinction  which  has  been  drawn  between  theory  and 
practice,  as  if  theory  were  other  than  a  digest  of  the  results  of 
experience ;  or,  if  they  overcome  this  prejudice,  and  resolve  to 
dive  into  the  arcana  of  philosophy,  they  are  bewildered  among 
names  and  signs,  having  begun  the  subject  at  the  wrong  end. 
That  the  attainment  of  such  knowledge  is  attended  with  difficulty 
is  certain,  but  it  is  with  such  difficulty  only  as  can  be  overcome 
by  properly  directed  application.  It  would  be,  indeed,  preparing 
disappointment  to  buoy  them  up  with  the  idea,  that  knowledge, 
even  of  the  most  trivial  importance,  can  be  acquired  without  labor. 

34 


472  ANECDOTES, 

Yet  it  may  not  be  altogether  unuseful,  for  the  sake  both  of  those 
who  are  already,  and  of  those  who  are  not,  acquainted  with  these 
principles,  to  point  out  the  more  prominent  causes,  on  account  of 
which  the  performance  of  no  model  can,  on  any  occasion,  be  con- 
sidered as  representative  of  that  of  the  machine.  Such  a  notice 
will  have  the  effect  of  directing  the  attention,  at  least,  to  this  im- 
portant subject.  In  the  present  state  of  the  arts,  the  expense  of 
constructing  a  full-sized  instrument  is,  in  almost  every  instance, 
beyond  what  its  projector  would  feel  inclined,  or  even  be  able,  to 
incur.  The  formation  of  a  model  is  thus  universally  resorted  to, 
as  a  prelude  to  the  attempt  on  the  large  scale.  An  inquiry,  then, 
into  the  relation  which  a  model  bears  to  the  perfect  instrument, 
can  hardly  fail  to  carry  along  with  it  the  advantage  of  forming  a 
tolerable  guide,  in  estimating  the  real  benefit  which  a  contrivance 
is  likely  to  confer  upon  society. 

"  In  the  following  paper  I  propose  to  examine  the  effect  of  a 
change  of  scale  on  the  strength  and  on  the  friction  of  machines, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  point  out  that  adherence  to  the  strictest 
principles  which  is  apparent  in  all  the  works  of  nature,  and  of 
which  I  mean  to  avail  myself  in  fortifying  my  argument. 

"  Previous,  however,  to  entering  on  the  subject-proper,  it  must 
be  remarked  that,  when  we  enlarge  the  scale  according  to  which 
any  instrument  is  constructed,  its  surface  and  its  bulk  are  enlarged 
in  much  higher  ratios.  If,  for  example,  the  linear  dimensions  of 
an  instrument  be  all  doubled,  its  surface  will  be  increased  four  and 
its  solidity  eight-fold.  Were  the  linear  dimensions  increased  ten 
times,  the  superficies  would  be  enlarged  one  hundred,  and  the  so- 
lidity one  thousand  times.  On  these  facts,  the  most  important 
which  geometry  presents,  my  after-remarks  are  mostly  to  be 
founded. 

"  All  machines  consist  of  moveable  parts,  sliding  or  turning  on 
others,  which  are  bound  together  by  bands,  or  supported  by  props. 
To  the  frame-work  I  shall  first  direct  my  attention. 

"  In  the  case  of  a  simple  prop,  destined  to  sustain  the  mere 
weight  of  some  part  of  the  machine,  the  strength  is  estimated  at 
so  many  hundred  weights  per  square  inch  of  cross  section.  Sup- 
pose that,  in  the  model,  the  strength  of  the  prop  is  sufficient  for 
double  the  load  put  on  it,  and  let  us  examine  the  effect  of  an  en- 
largement, ten-fold,  of  the  scale  according  to  which  the  instrument 
is  constructed.  By  such  an  enlargement,  the  strength  of  the  prop 
would  be  augmented  one  hundred  times  ;  it  would  be  able  to  bear 
two  hundred  loads  such  as  that  of  the  model,  but  then  the  weight 
to  be  put  on  it  would  be  one  thousand  times  that  of  the  small  ma- 
chine, so  that  the  prop  in  the  large  machine  would  be  able  to  bear 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC.  473 

only  the  fifth  part  of  the  load  to  be  put  on  it.  The  machine,  then, 
would  fall  to  pieces  by  its  own  weight. 

"  Here  we  have  one  example  of  the  erroneous  manner  in  which 
a  model  represents  the  performance  of  a  large  instrument.  The 
supports  of  small  objects  ought  clearly  to  be  smaller  in  proportion 
than  the  supports  of  large  ones.  Architects,  to  be  sure,  are  accus- 
tomed to  enlarge  and  to  reduce  in  proportion ;  but  nature,  whose 
structures  possess  infinitely  more  symmetry,  beauty,  and  variety, 
than  those  of  which  art  can  boast,  is  content  to  change  her  pro- 
portions  at  each  change  of  size.  Let  us  conceive  an  animal  having 
the  proportions  of  an  elephant  and  only  the  size  of  a  mouse  ;  not 
only  would  the  limbs  of  such  an  animal  be  too  strong  for  it,  they 
would  also  be  so  unwieldy  that  it  would  have  no  chance  among 
the  more  nimble  and  better  proportioned  creatures  of  that  size. 
Reverse  the  process,  and  enlarge  the  mouse  to  the  size  of  an  ele- 
phant, and  its  limbs,  totally  unable  to  sustain  the  weight  of  its 
immense  body,  would  scarcely  have  strength  to  disturb  its  position 
even  when  recumbent. 

"  The  very  same  remarks  apply  to  that  case  in  which  the  weight, 
instead  of  compressing,  distends  the  support.  The  chains  of 
Trinity  Pier  are  computed  to  be  able  to  bear  nine  times  the  load 
put  on  them.  But  if  a  similar  structure  were  formed  of  ten  times 
the  linear  dimensions,  the  strength  of  the  new  chain  would  be  one 
hundred  times  the  strength  of  that  at  Trinity,  while  the  load  put 
upon  it  would  be  one  thousand  times  greater ;  so  that  the  new 
structure  would  possess  only  nine-tenths  of  the  strength  necessary 
to  support  itself.  Of  how  little  importance,  then,  in  bridge  build- 
ing, whether  a  model  constructed  on  a  scale  of  perhaps  one  to  a 
hundred  support  its  own  weight !  Yet,  on  such  grounds,  a  proposi- 
tion for  throwing  a  bridge  of  two  arches  across  the  Forth,  at 
Queensferry,  was  founded.  Putting  out  of  view  the  road-way  and 
passengers  altogether,  the  weight  of  the  chain  alone  would  have 
torn  it  to  pieces.  The  larger  species  of  spiders  spin  threads  much 
thicker,  in  comparison  with  the  thickness  of  their  own  bodies,  than 
those  spun  by  the  smaller  ones.  And,  as  if  sensible  that  the  whole 
energies  of  their  systems  would  be  expended  in  the  frequent  repro- 
duction of  such  massy  webs,  they  choose  the  most  secluded  spots  ; 
while  the  smaller  species,  dreading  no  inconvenience  from  a  fre- 
quent renewal  of  theirs,  stretch  them  from  branch  to  branch,  and 
often  from  tree  to  tree.  I  have  often  been  astonished  at  the  pro- 
digious lengths  of  these  filaments,  and  have  mused  on  the  immense 
improvement  which  must  take  place  in  science,  and  in  strength  of 
materials  too,  ere  we  could,  individually,  undertake  works  of  such 
comparative  magnitude. 


474  ANECDOTES, 

"  When  a  beam  gives  support  laterally,  its  strength  is  proper 
tioned  to  its  breadth,  and  to  the  square  of  its  depth  conjointly.  If, 
then,  such  a  beam  were  enlarged  ten  times  in  each  of  its  linear 
dimensions,  its  ability  to  sustain  a  weight  placed  at  its  extremity 
would,  on  account  of  the  increased  distance  from  the  point  of  in- 
sertion, be  only  one  hundred  times  augmented,  but  the  load  to  be 
put  upon  it  would  be  one  thousand  times  greater ;  and  thus,  al- 
though the  parts  of  the  model  be  quite  strong  enough,,  we  can. 
not  thence  conclude  that  those  of  the  enlarged  machine  will 
be  so. 

"  It  may  thus  be  stated  as  a  general  principle,  that,  in  similar 
machines,  the  strengths  of  the  parts  vary  as  the  square,  while  the 
weights  laid  on  them  vary  as  the  cube  of  the  corresponding  linear 
dimension. 

"  This  fact  cannot  be  too  firmly  fixed  in  the  minds  of  machine 
makers ;  it  ought  to  be  taken  into  consideration  even  on  the 
smallest  change  of  scale,  as  it  will  always  conduce  either  to  the 
sufficiency  or  to  the  economy  of  a  structure.  To  enlarge  or  di- 
minish the  parts  of  a  machine  all  in  the  same  proportion,  is  to 
commit  a  deliberate  blunder.  Let  us  compare  the  wing  of  an  in- 
sect with  that  of  a  bird  :  enlarge  a  midge  till  its  whole  weight  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  sea-eagle,  and,  great  as  that  enlargement  must 
be,  its  wing  will  scarcely  have  attained  the  thickness  of  writing 
paper ;  the  falcon  would  feel  rather  awkward  with  wings  of  such 
tenuity.  The  wings  of  a  bird,  even  when  idle,  form  a  conspicuous 
part  of  the  whole  animal ;  but  there  are  insects  which  unfold,  from 
beneath  two  scarcely  perceived  covers,  wings  many  times  more 
extensive  than  the  whole  surface  of  their  bodies. 

"  The  larger  animals  are  never  supported  laterally  ;  their  limbs 
are  always  in  a  position  nearly  vertical :  as  we  descend  in  the 
scale  of  size  the  lateral  support  becomes  more  frequent,  till  we 
find  whole  tribes  of  insects  resting  on  limbs  laid  almost  horizon- 
tally. The  slightest  consideration  will  convince  any  one  that 
lateral  or  horizontal  limbs  would  be  quite  inadequate  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  larger  animals.  Conceive  a  spider  to  increase 
till  his  body  weighed  as  much  as  that  of  a  man,  and  then  fancy 
one  of  us  exhibiting  feats  of  dexterity  with  such  locomotive  instru- 
ments as  the  spider  would  then  possess  ! 

"  The  objects  which  I  have  hitherto  compared  have  been  re- 
mote, that  the  comparisons  might  be  the  more  striking ;  but  the 
same  principles  may  be  exhibited  by  the  contrast  of  species  the 
most  nearly  allied,  or  of  individuals  even  of  the  same  species. 
The  larger  species  of  spiders,  for  instance,  rarely  have  their  legs 
so  much  extended  as  the  smaller  ones ;  or,  to  take  an  example 


DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC.  475 

from  the  larger  animals,  the  form  of  the  Shetland  pony  is  very 
different  from  that  of  the  London  dray-horse. 

"  How  interesting  it  is  to  compare  the  different  animals,  and  to 
trace  the  gradual  change  of  form  which  accompanies  each  in- 
crease  of  size  !  In  the  smaller  animals,  the  strength  is,  as  it  were, 
redundant,  and  there  is  room  for  the  display  of  the  most  elaborate 
ornament.  How  complex  or  how  beautiful  are  the  myriads  of 
insects  which  float  in  the  air,  or  which  cluster  on  the  foliage ! 
Gradually  the  larger  of  these  become  more  simple  in  their  struc- 
ture, their  ornaments  less  profuse.  The  structure  of  the  birds  is 
simpler  and  more  uniform,  that  of  the  quadrupeds  still  more  so. 
As  we  approach  the  larger  quadrupeds,  ornament,  and  then  ele- 
gance, disappear.  This  is  the  law  in  the  works  of  nature,  and  this 
ought  to  be  the  law  among  the  works  of  art. 

"  Among  one  class  of  animals,  indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  this 
law  is  reversed.  We  have  by  no  means  a  general  classification 
of  the  fishes  ;  but,  among  those  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  we 
do  not  perceive  such  a  prodigious  change  of  form.  Here,  how- 
ever, the  animal  has  not  to  support  its  own  weight ;  and  whatever 
increase  may  take  place  in  the  size  of  the  animal,  a  like  increase 
takes  place  in  the  buoyancy  of  the  fluid  in  which  it  swims.  Many 
of  the  smaller  aquatic  animals  exhibit  the  utmost  simplicity  of 
structure  ;  but  we  know  too  little  of  the  nature  of  their  functions 
to  draw  any  useful  conclusions  from  this  fact.11 


Shoes  and  Buckles. 

The  business  of  a  shoemaker  is  of  great  antiquity.  The~instru- 
ment  for  cleaning  hides,  the  shoemaker ""s  bristle  added  to  the  yarn, 
and  his  knife,  were  in  use  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century.  He 
was  accustomed  to  hawk  his  goods,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  there 
was  a  separate  trade  for  annexing  the  soles.  The  Romans  in 
classical  times  wore  cork  soles  in  their  shoes,  to  secure  the  feet 
from  water,  especially  in  winter  ;  and  as  high  heels  were  not  then 
introduced,  the  Roman  ladies  who  wished  to  appear  taller  than  they 
had  been  formed  by  nature,  put  plenty  of  cork  under  them.  The 
streets  of  Rome  in  the  time  of  Domitian  were  blocked  up  by  cob- 
bler's stalls,  which  he  therefore  caused  to  be  removed.  In  the 
middle  ages  shoes  were  cleaned  by  washing  with  a  sponge ;  and 
oil,  soap,  and  grease  were  the  substitutes  for  blacking.  Buckles 
were  worn  on  shoes  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  an  Irish  abbey 
a  human  skeleton  was  found  with  marks  of  buckles  on  the  shoes. 
In  England  they  became  fashionable  many  years  before  the  reign 

34* 


476  ANECDOTES, 

of  Queen  Mary ;  the  laboring  people  wore  them  of  copper ;  other 
persons  had  them  of  silver,  or  copper  gilt ;  not  long  after,  shoe 
roses  came  in.  Buckles  revived  before  the  revolution  of  1689, 
remained  fashionable  till  after  the  French  revolution  in  1789,  and 
finally  became  extinct  before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


The  Croton  Aqueduct. 

Some  of  our  readers  may  have  had  their  curiosity  excited  with 
respect  to  the  great  aqueduct  now  in  construction  for  the  supply 
of  New  York  with  water.  The  following  description  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  work  is  performed,  with  the  illustrative  cut  connected 
with  it,  will  prove  acceptable.  We  have  been  indebted  for  them 
to  Mr.  Miner,  editor  of  the  Railroad  Journal,  from  whom  we  have 
before  received  several  similar  favors. 

The  ground  on  which  New  York  stands  consists  chiefly  of  loose 
sand,  intermixed  in  many  places  with  coarse  gravel  and  boulders, 
or  roundish  stones  of  different  sizes,  apparently  brought  by  a  flood 
of  water  from  some  primitive  region.  Hornblend  rock  predomi- 
nates. Granite  and  gneiss  rocks  are  found  in  original  masses  in 
some  parts.  Long  Island  consists  of  sand  and  loose  stones,  with- 
out a  trace  of  any  fixed  rock,  except  at  Hurlgate,  and  perhaps  at 
one  or  two  other  places. 

Primitive  rocks  and  soils  generally  furnish  good  water  ;  and  the 
springs  of  this  city,  though  few  and  public,  are  abundant,  and 
many  of  them  were  originally  good.  The  increase  of  population, 
however,  has  caused  the  deterioration  of  the  water :  for  where 
the  rain  once  fell  on  fields  of  grass  or  groves  of  wood,  it  now 
meets  with  crowded  streets  or  narrow  lots  occupied  by  crowded 
habitations,  and  contracts  impurities  which  it  carries  with  it  far 
down  into  the  sands  where  the  springs  flow.  Some  of  the  wells 
in  the  middle  and  upper  parts  of  the  city,  which  yielded  excellent 
water  within  the  memory  of  living  inhabitants,  have  become  so 
much  affected  in  later  years,  that  many  of  the  people  purchase 
drinking  water  at  a  penny  a  pailful,  of  men  who  bring  it  in  carts 
from  springs  yet  untainted  by  the  encroaching  city.  As  the  water 
of  the  wells  is  unfit  for  washing  as  well  as  for  drinking,  every 
.family  requires  a  cistern  ;  and  thus  it  has  been  thought  desirable, 
for  many  years,  that  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water  should  be 
obtained  for  the  city. 

The  Water  Works  in  Chambers  street,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Manhattan  Company,  have  furnished,  for  some  years,  water  of 
an  inferior  quality  to  the  inhabitants  of  many  streets  in  the  lower 


DESCRIPTIONS,  ETC. 


477 


parts  of  the  city,  at  certain  prices ;  and  water  for  the  use  of  fire- 
engines  has  since  been  provided,  in  a  large  reservoir  on  the  height 
of  ground,  from  which  it  is  distributed  in  hydrants  to  different  dis- 
tricts. It  was  proposed,  some  years  ago,  to  obtain  a  supply  from 
several  ponds  in  the  town  of  Rye  :  but,  after  an  examination,  the 
Croton  river  was  preferred,  although  the  distance  was  great,  the 
route  obstructed  by  serious  impediments,  and  the  work  tedious 
and  very  expensive.  The  friends  of  the  enterprise,  however, 
rightly  judged,  that  nothing  could  be  so  expensive  to  the  health 
and  convenience  of  the  inhabitants,  and  therefore  in  fact  so  great 
a  pecuniary  loss  to  the  city  treasury,  as  the  longer  neglect  of  the. 
great  work.  It  was  therefore  commenced  ;  and  about  five  thou- 
sand men  have  sometimes  been  employed  on  it  at  one  time. — 
Family  Visiter. 


Section  of  the  Croton  Aqueduct. 


Description  of  the  mode  of  constructing  the  Croton  Aqueduct, 
from  the  American  Railroad  Journal — The  materials  used  are 
good  building-stone,  of  the  proper  degree  of  hardness  and  dura- 
bility, free  from  all  metals,  particularly  iron.  Gneiss  is  preferred 
to  any  other,  both  because  it  is  more  plentiful  and  more  easily 
worked.  Some  limestone  is  also  used,  but  not  until  it  has  the 


473  ANECDOTES, 

express  permit  of  the  Resident  Engineer.  Brick  is  the  next  ma- 
terial ;  it  is  required  to  be  from  the  centre  of  the  kiln,  such  as  is 
thoroughly  burnt,  free  from  lime  or  any  other  impurity,  and  to 
possess  a  clear  ringing  sound  when  struck.  The  worst  accepted 
are  such  as  cost  from  five  to  seven  dollars  a  thousand.  Next  is 
the  cement,  from  which  the  concrete  and  masonry  generally  are 
formed.  The  commissioners'  specifications  are  very  explicit  re- 
lative to  the  manufacture  of  this  article,  requiring  that  the  name 
of  the  manufacturer  should  be  known  ;  that  the  cement  shall  not 
have  been  made  more  than  six  months  before  being  used ;  that  it 
shall  be  transported  from  the  factory  in  water-tight  casks ;  and, 
in  addition  to  all  this,  that  each  parcel  or  cargo  received  shall  be 
thoroughly  tested,  either  by  officers  appointed  for  the  purpose,  or 
by  the  Resident  Engineer  himself.  These  are  the  principal  ma- 
terials, stone,  brick,  and  cement.  The  stone  is  required  to  be 
always  clean,  and  in  hot  weather,  kept  wet,  and  when  laid  in  the 
wall  requiring  mortar,  it  must  "  swim"  in  the  cement — that  is, 
when  the  stone  is  lifted  up  from  its  bed,  no  point  or  surface  of  the 
stone  must  touch  the  stone  below  it,  each  stone  must  be  surrounded 
by  cement.  When  the  weather  is  hot,  the  top  of  the  wall  must 
be  kept  moist,  and  in  cold  weather  all  the  masonry  must  bo 
covered  so  effectually,  as  to  protect  it  perfectly.  The  brick  must 
be  laid  true  and  even,  allowing  three-eighths  of  an  inch  joint,  or 
thereabouts.  In  hot  weather,  they  are  to  be  soaked  in  water,  and 
to  be  kept  wet  while  being  laid.  The  cement  is  mixed  in  differ- 
ent proportions,  according  to  the  work  required.  For  stone  work, 
the  proportions  are  one  part  of  cement  to  three  of  sand,  (the  sand 
to  be  medium  size,  sharp  grained  and  clean — river  sand  is  ac- 
cepted.) For  brick  work,  the  proportions  are  one  of  cement  to 
two  of  sand  ;  for  concrete,  one  part  of  cement,  three  of  sand,  and 
three  of  clean  building-stone,  broken  about  as  fine  as  that  used 
for  Macadamizing.  Concrete  is  used  for  forming  artificial  founda- 
tions, is  mixed  with  as  little  water  as  possible,  and  when  laid  in 
any  part  of  the  work,  is  left  undisturbed  forty-eight  hours ;  at  the 
expiration  of  this  time  it  has  become  so  hard,  that  a  blow  with  a 
pickaxe  will  not  break  it :  it  becomes  quite  a  rock. 

The  aqueduct,  maintaining  a  uniform  descent,  requires  that  in 
places  the  earth  should  be  cut  away,  and  in  crossing  valleys,  that 
they  should  be  filled  up.  In  the  former  case,  the  sides  of  the  cut 
are  left  standing  at  a  slope  of  one  half  to  one  ;  that  is,  if  the  per- 
pendicular height  of  the  side  of  the  cut  be  six  feet,  it  will  fall  from 
directly  above  its  base  three  feet.  It  is  one-half  horizontal  to  one 
vertical.  The  base  of  the  cut  is  always  thirteen  feet  wide.  Pegs, 
showing  the  bottom  of  the  side  walls,  and  of  the  reversed  arch  in 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  479 

brick,  are  given  by  the  engineers,  who,  at  the  same  time,  deter- 
mine  the  centres,  if  necessary,  from  these  data.  The  builder  lays 
a  small  layer  of  concrete,  at  least  three  inches,  whose  top  shall  be 
as  high  as  the  top  of  the  peg  just  set.  On  the  concrete  he  pro- 
ceeds to  build  the  side  walls  of  the  aqueduct.  You  may  see  the 
dimensions  by  the  plan  better  than  I  could  tell  you.  The  side 
walls  being  done,  they  are  filled  in  behind  them,  up  to  the  top, 
with  earth,  to  prevent  strain  or  damage,  also  to  act  as  a  support, 
and  cover  up  the  work  as  fast  as  possible.  Then  the  concrete  is 
laid  for  the  bottom  of  the  reversed  arch  in  brick,  by  means  of 
moulds  placed  every  ten  feet  apart.  When  thoroughly  set,  the 
brick  work  is  commenced.  Selecting  the  best  brick  (and  it  has 
all  been  most  thoroughly  inspected,)  the  reversed  arch  is  laid,  and 
then  the  "brick-facing" — that  is,  facing  the  inside  of  the  wall  with 
brick,  when  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  upper  arch, 
consisting  of  two  ring  courses  (with  occasional  headers,)  is  thrown ; 
the  arch  is  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  plaster,  and  the  angle 
made  by  the  top  of  the  wall  and  arch  filled  with  the  same  kind  of 
masonry  as  the  side  walls  ;  and  then  the  aqueduct  is  done. 

You  will  perceive  it  to  be  a  long  brick  vault  stretching  from 
New  York  to  Croton,  ascending  at  the  rate  of  thirteen  inches  in 
a  mile.  The  earth  removed  in  the  excavation  is  then  "  back  filled" 
over  the  aqueduct  until  it  is  four  feet  deep  over  the  crown  of  the 
arch,  level  on  top,  and  ten  or  eight  feet  wide,  and  the  sides  slope 
one  and  a  half  to  one,  (as  you  see  in  the  figure.)  When  the 
ground  is  too  steep,  a  "  protection  wall"  is  introduced,  (see  draw- 
ing;) this  is  laid  dry,  i.  e.,  without  mortar,  and  made  to  slope  one 
half  to  one,  as  in  the  drawing,  or  one  to  one,  at  an  angle  of  forty- 
five  degrees.  So  much  for  the  aqueduct  "  in  open  cutting  in 
earth."  When  a  valley  is  crossed,  a  heavy  wall  fifteen  feet  wide 
on  top,  with  sides  sloping  one-twelfth  to  one,  must  be  built.  They 
are  large  stones  firmly  imbedded  in  small  broken  ones.  On  the 
top  of  this  wall,  a  foot  of  concrete  is  placed ;  the.aqueduct,  as  usual, 
is  built  on  that.  As  water  passes  through  valleys,  a  stone  passage 
way,  called  "  a  culvert,"  is  made  of  suitable  dimensions. 

Cugnofs  Steam  Carriage. 

The  improvements  of  the  mechanism  of  the  steam  engine, 
stimulated  many  projects  for  adapting  its  agency  to  other  pur- 
poses besides  that  of  raising  water  ;  and  the  scheme  of  John 
Theophilus  Cugnot,  a  native  of  Void,  in  Lorraine,  is  meritorious 
for  its  novelty  and  its  successful  practical  development.  In  his 
youth,  Cugnot  served  in  Germany  as  an  engineer.  Passing  after- 


480  ANECDOTES, 

wards  into  the  service  of  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  he  resided 
at  Brussels,  and  gave  lessons  in  the  military  art,  with  the  theory 
and  practice  of  which  he  was  profoundly  acquainted.  The  in- 
vention of  a  light  gun  procured  him  the  notice  of  the  Compte  de 
Saxe,  to  whom,  about  1763,  he  exhibited  a  model  of  a  carriage 
moved  by  a  steam  engine,  instead  of  horses.  He  afterwards 
lived  at  Paris,  and  through  the  recommendation  of  the  Compte,  ob- 
tained, in  1769,  the  patronage  of  the  Due  de  Choiseul,  then 
minister  at  war.  He  was  now  enabled,  at  the  public  expense,  to 
construct  a  large  carriage  moved  by  a  steam  engine,  similar  to 
that  of  the  model  he  had  shown  years  previously.  At  the  first 
trials  in  1770  of  this  novel  vehicle,  before  a  numerous  assemblage 
of  officers  and  professional  persons,  its  movements  were  so  violent 
as  to  overturn  a  portion  of  a  wall  that  was  opposed  to  its  progress. 
This,  unfortunately,  produced  an  opinion,  that  in  consequence  of 
the  uncertainty  of  obtaining  proper  mechanical  control,  its  motion 
would  be  of  small  use  in  practice.  The  project  was  therefore  aban- 
doned, and  the  experimental  machine  was  deposited  in  the  museum 
of  the  Arsenal,  to  become  a  point  of  reference  to  the  epigrammatist, 
and  a  memorial  of  the  blasted  hopes  of  the  accomplished  author. 
Cugnot 's  genius  expanded  half  a  century  too  soon,  either  for  its 
value  being  known,  or  its  efforts  cherished. 

At  a  later  period  of  life,  his  means  of  subsistence  having  fallen 
into  decay,  the  various  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  public 
were  thought  to  entitle  him  to  a  reward  from  the  state.  The  re- 
volution sweeping  away  even  this  pitiful  pension  of  twenty-one 
pounds  a  year,  Cugnot  must  have  perished  with  hunger,  but  for 
the  compassionate  benevolence  of  a  lady  of  Brussels.  With  the 
kindness  of  her  sex,  she  not  only  provided  for  the  wants,  but 
watched  with  tenderness  over  the  personal  comforts  of  the  now 
feeble  and  helpless  old  man,  until  the  well  known  Mercier  suc- 
ceeded in  drawing  the  attention  of  Napoleon  to  the  miserable  fate 
of  his  aged  and  ancient  friend. 

Cugnot  died  at  Paris  in  1805,  in  his  80th  year,  in  a  state  to  him 
of  comparative  affluence,  from  the  enjoyment  of  a  valuable  an- 
nuity from  Napoleon. 

Eloquent  Description 

But  about  seventy  years  since,  every  thread  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton,  wool,  worsted,  and  flax,  throughout  the  world, 
was  spun  singly  by  the  fingers  of  the  spinner,  with  the  aid  of  that 
classical  instrument,  the  domestic  spinning  wheel.  In  1767,  an 
eight-handed  spinster  sprung  from  the  genius  of  Hargreaves ; 


DESCRIPTIONS,   ETC.  481 

and  the  jenny,  with  still  increasing  powers,  made  its  way  into  com- 
mon  use  in  spite  of  all  opposition.  Two  years  afterwards  the 
more  wonderful  invention  of  Wyatt,  which  claims  a  much  earlier 
origin,  but  which  had  disappeared,  like  a  river  that  sinks  into  a 
subterraneous  channel,  now  rose  again  under  the  fortunate  star  of 
Arkwright,  claiming  yet  higher  admiration,  as  founded  on  princi- 
ples of  more  extensive  application.  Five  years  later  the  happy 
thought  of  combining  the  principles  of  these  two  inventions,  to 
produce  a  third,  much  more  efficient  than  either,  struck  the  mind 
of  Crompton,  who,  by  a  perfectly  original  contrivance,  effected 
the  union.  From  twenty  spindles  this  machine  was  brought,  by 
more  finished  mechanism,  to  admit  of  a  hundred  spindles,  and 
thus  to  exercise  a  Briarean  power.  Kelly  relinquished  the  toilsome 
method  of  turning  the  machine  by  hand,  and  yoked  to  it  the 
strength  of  a  rapid  river.  Watt,  with  the  subtler  and  more  potent 
agency  of  steam,  moved  an  iron  arm  that  never  slackens  or  tires, 
which  whirls  round  two  thousand  spindles  in  a  single  machine. 
Finally,  to  consummate  the  wonder,  Roberts  dismisses  the  spin- 
ner,  and  leaves  the  machine  to  its  own  infallible  guidance.  So 
that  at  the  present  time  several  thousand  spindles  may  be  seen  in 
a  single  room,  revolving  with  inconceivable  rapidity,  with  no  hand 
to  urge  their  progress,  or  to  guide  their  operations — drawing  out, 
twisting,  and  winding  up  as  many  thousand  threads  with  unfailing 
precision,  indefatigable  patience  and  strength, — a  scene  as  magi- 
cal  to  the  eye  that  is  not  familiar  to  it,  as  the  effects  have  been 
marvellous  in  augmenting  wealth  and  population. 

If  the  thought  should  cross  any  mind,  that,  after  all,  the 
genius  of  man  has  been  expended  in  the  insignificant  object  of 
enabling  men  better  to  pick  out,  arrange,  and  twist  together 
the  fibres  of  a  vegetable  wool, — that  it  is  for  the  performance  of 
this  minute  operation  that  so  many  energies  have  been  exhausted, — 
so  much  capital  employed, — such  stupendous  structures  reared, 
and  so  vast  a  population  trained  up — we  reply  :  An  object  is  not 
insignificant  because  the  operation  by  which  it  is  effected  is 
minute  :  the  first  want  of  men  in  this  life,  after  food,  is  clothing, 
and  as  this  art  enables  them  to  supply  it  far  more  easily  and 
cheaply  than  the  old  methods  of  manufacturing,  and  to  bring 
cloths  of  great  elegance  and  durability  within  the  use  of  the  hum. 
ble  classes,  it  is  an  art  whose  utility  is  only  inferior  to  that  of 
agriculture.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  impor- 
tance of  these  inventions.  The  Greeks  would  have  elevated  their 
authors  among  the  gods ;  nor  will  the  enlightened  judgment  of 
modern  times  deny  them  the  place  among  their  fellow  men,  which 
is  so  undeniably  their  due. 


462  ANECDOTES,  DESCRIPTIONS,    ETC. 


A  Watchmaker's  Epitaph. 

The  following  professional  epitaph  is  copied  from  a  tombstone 
in  Lidford  Churchyard,  Devon,  England. 

Here  lies  in  horizontal  position 

The  "outside  case"  of 

George  Routleigh,  Watch  Maker, 

Whose  abilities  in  that  line  were  an  honor 

To  his  Profession. 

Integrity  was  the  "  Main-spring," 

And  Prudence  the  "  Regulator"  of  all  the 

Actions  of  his  Life. 
Humane,  generous,  and  liberal, 
His  "Hand"  never  stopped 
Till  he  had  relieved  distress. 
So  sincerely  "regulated"  were  all  his  move- 
ments, 

That  he  never  "  went  wrong," 
Except  when  "set  agoing" 

By  People 
Who  did  not  know 

"His  Key." 
Even  then  he  was  easily 

"Set  right"  again. 
He  had  the  Art  of  disposing  his  "  Time" 

So  well, 
That  his  "hours"  glided  away 

In  one  continual  round 

Of  Pleasure  and  Delight, 

Till  an  unlucky  Moment  put  a  period  to 

His  Existence. 
He  departed  this  Life, 
November  14th,  1802, 

Aged  57  : 
"Wound  up" 

In  hopes  of  being  "taken  in  Hand" 

By  his  Maker, 

And  of  being 

Thoroughly  "cleaned," — "repaired," — and  "set 


agoing' 
We 


In  the  World  to  come. 


OF 

BOOKS  PUBLISHED  AND  FOR  SALE, 

ON  THE 

MOST  FAVORABLE   TERMS, 

^  BY 

ALEXANDER    V.    BLAKE, 

XSTo.  54  Gold;  corner  of  Ful  ton-street, 
NEW. YORK,    1841. 

A    GENERAL 

BIOGRAPHICAL   DICTIONARY, 

Comprising  a  Summary  Account  of  the  most  Distinguished  Persons 

of  all  Ages,  Nations,  and  Professions,  including 

more  than  1000  articles  of 

AMERICAN   BIOGRAPHY. 


BY   REV.  J.  L.  BLAKE,  D.  D. 

THIS  work  contains  about  eleven  hundred  pages  royal  octavo,  and 
the  matter  in  it  is  sufficient  to  make  from  fifteen  to  twenty  volumes 
12mo.,  which  usually  sell  for  seventy-five  cents  a  copy.  As  there  are 
in  it  nearly  ten  thousand  articles,  it  is  apparent  from  the  whole  cost 
of  the  book,  that  the  cost  of  each  article  is  only  half  of  one  mill — or 
twenty  articles  for  one  cent.  The  following  are  some  of  the  opinions 
from  the  periodical  press  of  this  work  : 

From  the  Albany  Daily  Advertiser. 

The  volume  is  creditable  to  American  literature  ;  and  the  learned 
author  has  furnished  us  in  this  work,  with  a  large  portion  of  what  is 


BLAKE  S  BIOGRAPHICAL  DICTIONARY. 


diffused  throughout  the  numerous  biographies  and  encyclopedias  which 
are  too  expensive  for  common  use. 

From  the  New- York  Commercial  Advertiser, 

On  the  whole,  we  commend  this  work  to  the  public  as  at  once  the 
most  convenient  and  useful  work  of  the  kind  to  be  found  in  our  Ian- 
guage. 

From  the  New- York  Evening  Star. 

It  is  got  up  in  good  taste,  and  contains  an  amount  of  matter  found 
in  no  one  volume  of  the  same  interest,  and  at  so  reduced  a  price. 

From  the  Philadelphia  Messenger. 

Dr.  Blake,  in  this  work,  has  well  fulfilled  the  task  he  undertook. 
The  choice  of  subjects  from  former  compilers  in  the  same  field  of  in- 
quiry, has  been  made  with  rare  judgment. 

From  the  United  States  Gazette. 

We  have  looked  with  much  pleasure  over  many  of  the  articles  in 
this  volume,  and  find  that  the  work  appears  to  be  unusually  correct. 

From  the  Chronicle  of  the  Church. 

We  cordially  recommend  this  volume  to  all  who  desire  a  conveni 
ent  and  comprehensive  summary  of  biographical  history,  and  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  it  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  family. 

From  the  New  Yorker. 

To  all  libraries,  public  and  private,  but  especially  to  those  of  schol- 
ars and  writers,  this  work  is  indispensable  ;  and  the  fact  that  so  large 
a  volume  has  in  so  brief  a  time  passed  to  its  third  edition,  testifies 
strongly  and  justly  to  its  merits. 

From  the  Hartford  Courant. 

The  merits  of  this  Dictionary,  and  the  low  price  at  which  it  is  af- 
forded, entitle  it  to  a  place  in  every  library. 

From  the  Daily  Whig-. 

Dr.  Blake's  Dictionary  contains  a  judicious  selection  from  the  most 
popular  foreign  biographies,  and  over  one  thousand  sketches  of  our 
own  countrymen,  compiled  with  great  care,  from  every  accessible 
source. 

From  the  New-York  Gazette. 

It  is  a  book  that  may  properly  be  called  indispensable,  and  we 
doubt  not  a  sufficient  number  will  so  deem  it,  to  compensate  the 
learned  and  indefatigable  author  for  his  arduous  persevering  labors. 


LIFE  OF  BRANT,  THE  INDIAN  WARRIOR. 


LIFE  OF  JOSEPH  BRANT— THAYENDANEGEA, 


INCLUDING 


The  Border  Wars  of  the  American  Revolution,  and  Sketches  of  the 

Indian  Campaigns  of  Generals  Harmar,  St.  Clair,  and  Wayne. 

Connected  with  the  Indian  relations  of  the  United 

States  and  Great  Britain,  from  the  Peace  of 

1783  to  the  Indian  Peace  of  1795. 


BY  WILLIAM  L.  STONE. 

WITH  A  LIKENESS  AND  OTHER  ENGRAVINGS. 2  VOLS. 


THIS  work  supplies  an  important  vacuum  in  American  History. 
That  noble  and  ilUated  race  of  men  to  which  Brant  belonged,  is  fast 
wasting  away,  and  ere  long  but  few  traces  of  them  will  remain.  The 
individual,  therefore,  who  toils  in  gathering  up  and  moulding  into  a 
durable  form  these  interesting  memorials,  may  be  esteemed  a  public 
benefactor.  From  the  numerous  notices  of  this  work  in  the  period- 
ical press,  the  following  condensed  selections  are  made : 

From  the  Philadelphia,  Gazette* 

We  have  read  enough  of  it  to  see,  that  should  the  author  never 
write  another  line,  he  has  done  enough  in  that  to  enrol  his  name 
among  the  best  historians  of  the  land. 

From  the  Albany  Daily  Advocate. 

The  author  has  discovered  great  diligence,  research,  and  talent  in 
the  execution  of  his  design,  and  it  must  be  a  standard  work  in  rela- 
tion to  the  subject  of  which  it  treats. 

From  the  Newark  Daily  Advertiser. 

There  are  in  it  several  admirable  engravings,  including  two  por- 
traits of  Brant,  from  original  paintings,  one  of  which  was  taken  in 
London  by  Romney,  and  another  of  his  distinguished  son  and  sue 
cessor.  The  vignette  of  the  engraved  title  page  is  one  of  the  most 
spirited  Indian  portraits  that  we  have  seen. 

From  the  New  York  Review. 

It  records  strong  and  peculiar  traits  of  national  and  individual  char- 
acter ;  while  the  laborious  and  persevering  research  of  the  author 
has  brought  together  a  mass  of  historical  documents,  personal  anec- 


LIFE  OF  BRANT,  THE  INDIAN  WARRIOR. 


dotes,  original  letters,  and  extracts  from  manuscript  journals,  which 
but  for  his  ingenious  labors,  had  perhaps  never  seen  the  light. 

From  the  New-York  Daily  Express. 

We  have  read  this  book  with  great  interest.  It  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  life  of  Brant.  Most  of  the  border  strifes  of  the  Revo- 
lution are  given.  The  thrilling  tales  of  that  trying  period  are  narra- 
ted. An  account  is  given  of  all  those  Indian  and  Tory  incursions,  by 
which  every  settlement  in  Western  New  York  was  laid  waste — of 
the  inroads  of  those  men,  whose  deeds,  in  the  language  of  De 
Witt  Clinton,  were  left  inscribed  with  the  scalping-knife  and  toma- 
hawk in  characters  of  blood  on  the  fields  of  Wyoming  and  Cherry 
Valley,  and  the  banks  of  the  Mohawk. 

From  the  Albany  Daily  Advertiser. 

There  is  a  vast  collection  of  invaluable  materials  for  history  in  these 
volumes ;  gathered  with  the  most  patient  research,  and  the  most 
laudable  perseverance ;  and  thrown  together  in  a  form  that  cannot 
fail  to  be  eminently  useful. 

From  the  Democratic  Review. 

Mr.  Stone  explored  successfully  a  rich  and  productive  mine  of  facts. 
Though  called  the  "•  Life  of  Joseph  Brant,"  it  is  a  more  extensive  and 
important  work ;  including,  in  part,,  the  Border  Wars  of  the  American 
Revolution,  and  Sketches  of  the  Indian  Campaigns  of  Generals  Har- 
mar,  St.  Clair,  and  Wayne,  and  other  matters  connected  with  the  In- 
dian relations  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

We  heartily  recommend  this  work  to  the  patronage  of  the  reading 
public,  as  replete  with  entertainment  and  instruction,  and  entitled  to 
a  place  in  every  well-stored  Library. 

From  the  London  Atheneum,  of  Oct.  6th,  1838. 

We  commend  Mr.  Stone  for  his  diligent  research,  and  congratulate 
him  on  the  good  fortune  which  has  attended  his  labors ;  he  has,  by  a 
careful  and  discriminating  reference  to  contemporary  authorities, 
public  and  private,  published  and  in  manuscript,  compiled  a  memoir 
which  may  worthily  take  its  place  on  our  shelves,  and  will  be  invalu- 
able hereafter  in  America. 

From  the  Cincinnati  Daily  Gazette,  Nov.,   1838. 
It  is  comprised  in  two  large  octavo  volumes,  and  is  contrived  to 
embrace  a  great  variety  of  important  historical  outlines  and  details, 
interspersed  with  incidents  and  anecdotes,  of  deep  interest,  especially 
in  matters  that  relate  to  the  Indians. 


THE  WORKS  OF  SAMUEL  JOHNSON,  LL.  D. 


LIFE  OF  SAMUEL  JOHNSON,  LL,  D, 

BY  JAMES  BOSWELL. 

WITH   NOTES   AND    ADDITIONS. 
BY  JOHN  WILSON  CROKER,  LL.  D. 

2  VOLS.     ROYAL  8vO. 

THIS  edition  of  the  Life  of  Johnson,  contains  a  portrait  of  the  great 
Lexicographer  himself — one  of  his  Biographer — and  one  of  the  celebra- 
ted Mrs.  Piozzi.  It  has  been  pronounced  a  Manual  of  Amusement, 
a  Repository  of  Wit,  Wisdom,  and  Morals,  and  a  lively  and  faithful 
history  of  the  manners  and  literature  of  England,  during  a  period 
hardly  second  in  brilliancy  and  superior  in  importance,  even  to  the 
Augustan  age  of  Anne. 

From  the  New-York  Constellation. 

Such  has  been  the  industry  of  Croker,  that,  in  forming  his  biogra- 
phy on  the  basis  of  Malone's  edition,  he  has  incorporated  the  sub- 
stance, and  in  some  instances  the  copy  verbatim,  of  no  less  than  sev. 
enteen  works,  from  the  pens  of  Mrs.  Piozzi,  Miss  Boothby,  Arthur 
Murphy,  Sir  J.  Hawkins,  and  other  friends  and  memorialists  of  John- 
son. 

From  the  Albion. 

The  additions  and  notes,  by  Croker,  are  all  in  the  first  style  of  ex- 
cellence, and  tend  to  the  further  elucidation  of  a  character  who  la- 
bored so  long  and  zealously  in  the  cause  of  learning,  and  at  the  same 
time  devoted  his  gigantic  talents  to  the  promotion  of  the  purest  mo- 
rality. 


THE   WORKS   OF   SAMUEL   JOHNSON,   LL.  D, 

WITH  AN  ESSAY  ON  HIS  LIFE  AND  GENIUS. 
BY   A.  MURPHY,   ESQ. 

2  VOLS.    ROYAL  8VO. 

The  complete  Works  of  this  great  English  Lexicographer  and 
Moralist,  in  the  present  edition,  are  designed  to  match  with  the  pub- 
lisher's edition  of  the  works  of  Lord  Byron.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
first  complete  American  edition  of  Dr.  Johnson's  writings.  To  see 
at  once  the  value  of  these  volumes  and  the  variety  of  their  contents, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  enumerate  the  several  subjects. 

For  instance  ;  the  first  volume  contains  Mr.  Murphy's  Essay ;  the 


6  THE  WORKS  OE  LORD  BYRON. 


Rambler,  consisting  of  208  /apers — the  Adventurer,  of  about  30 — 
the  Idler,  of  104 — RasseJ3  —Tales  of  the  Imagination — Letters  se- 
lected from  the  collection  o^Mrs.  Piozzi  and  others — Irene,  a  Trage- 
dy— Miscellaneous  Poems,  to  the  number  of  fifty.  The  second  vol- 
ume contains  the  celebrated  Lives  of  the  Poets — Lives  of  Eminent 
Persons — Political  Tracts — Philological  Tracts — Miscellaneous  Tracts 
— Dedications — Opinions  on  Questions  of  Law — Reviews  and  Criti- 
cisms— Journey  to  Hebrides,  and  Prayers  and  Meditations. 

There  is  a  likeness  of  Johnson  in  one  of  the  volumes,  and  a  fanci- 
ful engraving  in  the  other,  of  the  egress  of  Rasselas  from  the  "  Hap- 
py Valley." 


THE  WORKS  OF  LORD  BYRON, 

IN  VERSE  AND  PROSE, 
INCLUDING  HIS  LETTERS,  JOURNALS,  &c. 

WITH  A  SKETCH  OF  HIS  LIFE. 

ARRANGED  BY  FITZ  GREENE  HALLECK,  ESQ. 

IN  ONE  VOL.     ROYAL  8vO. 

The,  Head  of  Byron,  engraved  for  this  edition,  is  from  a  painting 
by  an  American  artist,  and  was  considered  by  Byron  and  his  friends 
as  the  best  ever  taken.  The  other  illustrations  are  also  of  the  first 
order.  That  of  Lady  Byron  has  been  much  admired. 

Notwithstanding  several  other  editions  of  the  works  of  this  distin- 
guished English  Bard  have  been  brought  before  the  public,  this  one  is 
still  a  favorite.  The  sales  of  it  last  year  were  at  least  one  hundred 
per  cent,  above  what  they  had  been  in  previous  years. 

Opinions  of  the  Periodical  Press. 

The  collection  has  been  arranged  with  great  care  and  labor  by  one 
of  our  favorite  and  justly  celebrated  Poets,  Fitz  Greene  Halleck,  who, 
Tom  his  early  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Byron, 
was  eminently  qualified  to  undertake  the  editorship.  It  is  said  he 
was  more  than  one  year  engaged  in  the  arrangement,  correction  of  er- 
rors, and  preparation  of  Notes. 

From  the  Albany  Evening  Journal. 

This  volume  contains  upwards  of  fifteen  hundred  of  Lord  Byron's 
Letters,  which,  in  our  judgment,  are  a  literary  treasure  of  as  great  a 
value  as  his  poetic  productions. 


MECHANIC'S  OWN  BOOK  AND  ARTIST'S  GUIDE.       7 
MECHANIC'S  OWN  BOOK  AND  ARTIST'S  GUIDE, 

BY  JAMES  PILKINGTON. 

• 

First. — It  contains  that  portion  of  Chemistry  applicable  to  the  Me- 
chanic  Arts; — also  abstracts  of  Electricity,  Galvanism,  Magnetism, 
Pneumatics,  Optics,  Astronomy,  and  Mechanical  Philosophy. 

Second. — Mechanical  Exercises  in  Iron,  Steel,  Lead,  Copper,  and 
Tin  Soldering  ;  also  a  variety  of  useful  Receipts  extending  to  every 
profession  and  occupation  of  life. 

Third. — Rules  and  Tables  for  Engineers,  Millwrights,  Machine  Ma- 
kers, Carpenters,  Bricklayers,  Smiths,  and  Pumpmakers ;  also  the 
Steam  Engine  Rendered  Easy. 

Fourth. — The  Manager's  Assistant  in  a  Cotton  Mill,  being  directions 
in  manufacturing  from  the  raw  material  till  converted  into  Yarn 
and  Cloth,  with  a  variety  of  matters  suited  to  the  various  mechan- 
ical trades  and  to  working  men  in  general. 

From  the  Brooklyn  Times. 

Admirably  indeed  has  the  author  performed  his  task.  The  volume 
under  consideration  is  filled  with  useful  information.  We  cannot  too 
strongly  urge  upon  that  respectable  and  valuable  class  of  our  fellow- 
citizens  engaged  in  mechanical  pursuits,  the  importance  of  possessing 
themselves  with  a  copy  of  this  work. 

From  the  New- York  Mechanic. 

This  volume  contains  much  valuable  information  on  a  variety  of 
subjects,  and  in  various  sciences,  connected  with  the  mechanic  arts. 

From  the  New- York  Tattler. 

This  volume  is  a  highly  valuable  work  for  mechanics,  and  indeed 
for  everybody. 

From  the  New- York  Standard. 

The  author  exhibits  both  talent  and  industry  in  the  original  and 
selected  portions  of  the  work,  and  has  a  short  preface  full  of  encour- 
agement to  industrious  mechanics. 

From  the  New- York  New  Era, 

Of  the  fitness  of  the  editor  to  judge  of  the  necessities  of  the  me- 
chanic, and  prepare  such  information  as  may  be  most  required,  our 
readers  will  be  satisfied  from  his  own  information,  "  that  he  has  re- 
ceived his  education,  not  under  academical  supervision  in  classic 
halls,  but  amid  the  ponderous  wheels  of  machinery." 


8  EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


From  the  Long  Island  Star. 

As  far  as  we  are  able  to  judge  of  this  work,  it  is  well  calculated  to 
lead  the  learner  to  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  which  govern  all 
mechanical  operations. 

From  the  New- York  Herald. 

This  book,  without  any  exception,  is  one  of  the  best  for  mechanics 
that  has  been  published.  It  contains  the  best  account  of  all  those 
branches  of  chemistry  applicable  to  the  mechanic  arts  we  have  read ; 
and  no  mechanic  should  be  without  this  very  able  work. 

From  the  New-York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

A  handsome  volume  of  nearly  500  pages,  containing  a  great  body 
of  elementary  information  concerning  the  mechanic  arts  and  the  sci- 
ences applicable  to  them,  with  numerous  formulas  for  the  preparation 
of  articles  used  in  divers  trades  and  professions — in  short,  a  kind  of 
vade  mecum  for  practical  men. 


CONVERSATIONS 

ON  THE 

EVIDENCES    OF   CHRISTIANITY, 

IN  WHICH 

The  Leading  Arguments  of  the  Best  Authors  are  arranged,  develop- 
ed, and  connected  with  each  other.     A  new  Edition  from 
the  English  Copy,  with  Improvements  adapt- 
ing  it  to  the  Use  of  Schools  and 
Family  Instruction. 


BY  THE  REV.  J.  L.  BLAKE,  D.  D. 

Author  of  the  First  Both  in  Astronomy,  and  various  works  on  Education. 


THIS  volume  is*designed  to  correspond  with  Mrs.  Marcet's  popular 
works  on  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry,  Botany,  and  Political  Econ- 
omy, revised  by  the  same  Editor.  It  is  a  very  appropriate  volume 
for  District  School  and  other  Libraries. 


EMINENT  MECHANICS. 


EMINENT    MECHANICS, 

Memoirs  of  the  Most  Eminent  American  Mechanics ;  also,  Lives  of 
Distinguished  European  Mechanics;  together  with  a  col- 
lection of  Anecdotes  and  other  Miscellaneous 
Matter  relating  to  the  Mechanic  Arts. 


BY  HENRY  HOWE, 

Of  New-Haven,  Connecticut. 

Illustrated  -with  Fifty  Engravings. 

CONTENTS  OF  THE  WORK. — A  Memoir  of  John  Fitch — Benjamin 
Franklin — Oliver  Evans — Samuel  Slater — Eli  Whitney — David  Bush- 
nell — Amos  Whittemore — Robert  Fulton — Jacob  Perkins — Thomas 
Blanchard — Henry  Eckford — John  Smeaton — Marquis  of  Worcester 
— James  Ferguson — Samuel  Crompton — William  Edwards — Richard 
Arkwright — M.Guinand — James  Watt — James  Brinley — Jesse  Rams- 
den — Earl  of  Stanhope — Hohlfield — Matthew  Boulton — Thomas  Tel- 
ford — Edmund  Cartwright — John  Whitehurst — James  Hargreaves, 
and  Joseph  Braham. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THE  WORK. 
From  the  New- York  Mechanic. 

This  is  decidedly  the  most  interesting  work  that  has  lately  been 
published.  Every  mechanic  should  be  in  possession  of  a  copy,  and 
we  are  much  mistaken  if  this  book  does  not  prove  exceedingly  popu- 
lar. The  memoirs  of  twenty-nine  eminent  mechanics  here  presented, 
contain  more  useful  and  solid  information  (to  the  practical  man)  than 
the  biographies  of  all  the  warriors  and  statesmen  the  world  ever  saw. 
Mechanics,  get  this  work !  You  will  not  repent  doing  so ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  will  thank  us  for  commending  it  to  your  notice. 

From  tlie  Hartford  Times. 

This  work  contains  much  valuable  historical  information,  and  is 
written  in  an  interesting  manner.  It  gives  a  short  sketch  of  the  lives 
of  a  number  of  eminent  mechanics,  and  describes,  step  by  step,  the 
manner  in  which  their  peculiar  faculties  were  developed.  The  me- 
moir of  Fulton  which  it  contains  is  worth  the  whole  price  of  the  book. 

From  the  New-Haven  Palladium. 

We  have  seen  no  new  publication  these  six  months  so  attractive  as 
this.  The  mechanics  especially  ought  to  be  proud  of  it,  and  to  be- 


10  EMINENT  MECHANICS. 


come  the  owners  of  it  at  once,  not  only  for  the  satisfaction,  and  pos- 
sibly the  pecuniary  profit  it  may  afford  them  from  the  hints  to  be  de- 
rived from  it,  but  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  right  sort  of  en- 
couragement to  those  who  originated  and  completed  the  expensive 
and  truly  laudable  enterprise.  The  portraits  and  engravings  alone 
are  worth  all  that  is  asked  for  the  work, — some  of  them  are  the 
most  effective  wood  prints  we  have  ever  seen. 

From  the  Columbian  Register. 

No  one  can  sit  down  to  a  perusal  of  this  volume  and  not  find  it 
hard  to  leave  it  unfinished,  or  regret  the  cost  of  so  much  new  and 
valuable  information,  put  together  in  so  enticing  a  form.  We  take 
pleasure  in  recommending  it  to  the  favorable  notice  of  the  public,  be- 
cause we  consider  it  valuable  in  itself,  and  due  to  the  exertions  of  the 
gentleman  who  compiled  and  published  it. 

From  the  New-Haven  Daily  Herald. 

It  is  illustrated  by  fifty  engravings,  embracing  eighteen  portraits  of 
the  most  eminent  mechanics  of  this  country  and  of  Europe,  together 
with  diagrams  and  drawings  of  those  first  efforts  of  invention  and  the 
arts  which  have  become  the  honor  and  glory  of  the  present  age.  The 
volume  is  most  elegantly  executed,  In  its  mechanical  department,  and 
is  itself  an  honor  to  the  arts,  which  it  is,  in  part,  its  purpose  to  illustrate. 
From  the  Hartford.  Patriot  and.  Democrat. 

The  utility  of  this  work  may  be  seen  at  a  glance.  Its  design  is  to 
rescue  from  oblivion  those  individuals  who  have  not  only  distinguish- 
ed themselves,  but  benefited  mankind  by  their  mechanical  skill  and 
inventions,  and  to  hold  them  up  for  the  admiration  and  encourage- 
ment of  youth.  The  biography  of  such  characters  has  not  hitherto 
met  with  that  attention  it  deserves.  We  are,  therefore,  pleased  in 
meeting  with  a  work  of  this  kind. 

From  tbe  New- York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

It  may  be  considered  a  Mechanics'  Biographical  Dictionary — full 
of  facts  and  anecdotes.  Nor  will  it  be  found  interesting  only  to  me- 
chanics. These,  indeed,  will  naturally  inquire  for  it  at  first,  and  they 
ought  to  study  it  well,  for  they  will  find  much  to  stimulate  and  en- 
courage their  ambition,  in  tracing  the  lives  of  the  mechanics  of  other 
days,  who  have  been  the  architects  of  their  own  fortunes — who  have 
cut  out  the  roads  of  their  own  respective  careers  to  eminence — and 
who,  by  their  genius  and  their  works,  have  commanded  the  homage 
of  the  world. 

Let  mechanics  read  this  book,  and  they  will  no  longer  feel  asha. 


THE  PARLOR  BOOK. 


med  of  being  mechanics  !  Let  them  read  this  book,  and  they  will  at 
once  cast  away  with  scorn  the  silly  idea,  which  occasionally  besets 
them,  of  bringing  up  their  sons  to  some  other  more  reputable  employ- 
ment !  For  here  they  will  find  many  of  their  brethren  who  have  ul- 
timately risen,  in  defiance  of  poverty  and  untold  obstacles,  to  the  most 
elevated  distinctions  in  society ;  and  to  become  the  benefactors  of 
mankind  even  to  unborn  generations. 


THE    PARLOR    BOOK, 

AND 

FAMILY    ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  AND  GENERAL  LITERATURE. 


BY  THE  REV.  J.  L.  BLAKE,  D.  D. 


The  design  of  this  work  is  to  furnish  a  book  for  detached  and  de- 
sultory reading — a  book  for  every-day  use — to  occupy  the  attention 
at  those  short  intervals  occurring  to  persons  of  almost  every  age  and 
profession.  The  business  man  in  the  morning,  and  more  particularly 
at  noon  and  in  the  evening,  frequently  has  a  short  interval  of  leisure, 
which  might  be,  and  ordinarily  would  be  devoted  to  useful  reading, 
provided  some  convenient  manual  were  at  hand.  So  it  is  with  the 
student  in  the  recess  from  more  severe  intellectual  labor ;  and  so  it  is 
with  the  literary  lady  amidst  the  transient  or  stated  occupations  of  do- 
mestic duty. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Parlor  Book  contains  such  a  variety  ;  that  it 
will  tend  to  amuse  and  edify  every  class  of  readers — the  young  and 
the  old — the  grave  and  the  gay — the  accomplished  scholar,  and  the 
person. of  limited  literary  attainments.  Let  persons  open  it  by  acci- 
dent, and  they  will  be  likely  to  find,  at  the  first  glance,  an  article  that 
will  arrest  the  attention,  and  amply  repay  them  for  the  time  devoted 
to  its  perusal.  Nor  is  it  a  circumstance  to  be  overlooked,  that  the 
same  matter  in  the  forms  usually  containing  it,  will  cost  ten  times  the 
price  of  the  Parlor  Book. 


12         A  NEW  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH  DICTIONARY. 


A   NEW 

FRENCH    AND    ENGLISH   DICTIONARY, 

ON  THE  BASIS   OF  NUGENT'S, 
WITH    MANY    NEW   WORDS    IN    GENERAL   USE. 

IN  TWO  PARTS  : 

I.  French  and  English. — II.  English  and  French.     Exhibiting  the  pronun- 

'dation  of  the  French  in  pure  English  sounds,  the  parts  of  speech, 

gender  of  French  nouns,  regular  and  irregular  conjunctions 

of  verbs,  accents  of  English  words,  list  of  the  usual 

Christian  proper  names,  and  names  of  countries 

and   nations  j    to  which  are  prefixed 

principles  of 

FRENCH  PRONUNCIATION,  AND  AN  ABRIDGED  GRAMMAR. 


BY   F.  C.   MEADOWS,   M.  A., 

Of  the  University  of  Paris, 

Corrected  and  improved,  with  a  selection  of  Idiomatic  Phrases, 
BY  GEORGE  FOLSOM,  A.  M. 

THE  publisher  has  spared  no  pains  or  reasonable  expense  in  getting 
up  this  work,  and  adapting  it  to  the  taste  and  the  wants  of  persons 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  French  language.  He  has  also  made 
arrangements  for  selling  it  so  low,  that  it  may  be  used  by  schools 
generally.  The  most  hasty  examination  will  satisfy  any  one  compe- 
tent to  form  an  opinion,  that  it  is  decidedly  the  best  School  Dictionary 
of  the  French  language  in  use.  The  book  speaks  for  itself.  Instruct- 
ors are  particularly  desired  to  examine  it. 

Excellencies  of  Meadows'  Dictionary. 

First. — It  is  in  a  form  most  desirable  for  use — neither  so  large,  nor 
in  a  shape  to  be  inconvenient  in  being  handled  with  other  books. 

Second. — It  is  on  fine  white  paper,  and  bound  in  morocco ;  and  its 
whole'  appearance  is  fit  for  the  centre  table,  for  reference  in  parlor 
reading,  as  well  as  for  study  in  the  school-room.  O"  Hence  particu- 
larly fit  for  young  ladies. 

Third. — The  author  has  adopted  the  pure  English  sounds,  by  means 
of  which  the  learner,  with  very  little  previous  instruction,  can  readily 
acquire  the  pronunciation  of  any  French  word.  KIT  This  is  a  most 
decided  improvement. 


THE  LAWS  OP  TRADE.  13 


Fourth. — It  is  also  the  cheapest  French  Dictionary  of  its  value 
which  has  been  published.  The  Dictionary  of  Boyer  is  sold  to  the 
trade  at  wholesale,  for  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  copy.  Meadows' 
Dictionary  contains,  by  accurate  calculation,  one  fifth  more  matter 
than  Boyer,  and  yet  is  sold  for  one  half  the  price  of  that. 

HT  Meadows'  Dictionary  has  already  become  extensively  known 
and  is  extensively  used.  The  annual  sales  have  doubled  in  number 
within  the  last  three  years,  as  much  depressed  as  business  generally, 
and  the  book  business  in  particular,  has  been.  It  is  unnecessary, 
therefore,  to  add  the  numerous  recommendations  that  have  been  re- 
ceived  from  Teachers  in  relation  to  the  work.  It  may  be  had  of  the 
principal  booksellers  in  the  United  States.  A  new  Edition  just  pub- 
lished. 


THE    LAWS    OF    TRADE, 

Containing  an  Abstract  of  the  Statutes  relating  to  Debtor  and  Cred- 
itor in  each  of  the    United   States;  together  with  Inter- 
esting Illustrations  of  the  application  of  those 
Statutes,  particularly  in  cases  of  Im- 
prisonment for  Debt. 


BY  JACOB  B.  MOORE. 

THE  above  work  is  prepared  with  much  care,  and  contains  the 
most  valuable  information  to  all  persons  engaged  in  trade,  whether 
debtor  or  creditor — information  never  before  brought  into  a  form  so 
convenient — information  hitherto  obtained  only  from  lawyers  in  the 
different  States  at  great  expense,  or  from  the  statutes  of  the  different 
States  found  in  large  Law  Libraries. 

In  addition  to  the  Abstract  of  Laws  in  the  different  States  relating 
to  Debtor  and  Creditor,  the  more  miscellaneous  portions  of  this  book 
will  render  it  interesting  and  amusing  to  the  common  reader  as  well 
as  to  the  man  of  business.  Here  will  be  found  instances  of  the  great 
delay  and  extraordinary  expenses,  in  some  of  the  States,  attending 
the  collection  of  debts  by  legal  process ;  and  here  will  be  found  in- 
stances of  the  barbarism  and  of  the  inutility  of  imprisonment  for 
debt,  as  a  means  for  its  collection.  It  is  believed  that  the  general 
use  of  this  volume  will  save  hundreds  of  dollars  to  many  business 
men,  and  will  tend  in  the  community  at  large  to  the  correction  of  many 
false  impressions  on  a  subject  involving  many  of  our  best  interests. 


14  TEMPERANCE  BOOK. 


A  MEMOIR  01  THE 

VERY    REVEREND    THEOBALD    MATTHEW, 

t 

WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE       I 
RISE  AND  PROGRESS  OF  TEMPERANCE  IN  IRELAND. 


BY  THE  REV.  JAMES   BERMINGHAM. 

WITH  AN   APPENDIX, 

BY   P.   H.   MORRIS,   M.  D.r 

ON  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DRUNKENNESS  PHYSIOLOGICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

IT  is  proper  to  remark  that  this  work  is  not,  as  some  might  infer, 
particularly  intended  for  Roman  Catholics — it  is  as  much  designed  to 
inform  Protestants  of  the  means  made  use  of  by  the  former  in  pro- 
ducing one  of  the  most  extraordinary  moral  phenomena  the  world 
has  ever  known.  And  notwithstanding  the  skepticism  that  some 
Protestants  have  evinced  in  relation  to  the  genuineness  and  constant 
permanency  of  it,  on  the  reading  of  the  Memoir  of  Father  Matthew, 
they  will  become  satisfied  that  the  agencies  used  by  him  are  strictly 
philosophical  and  proper,  being  the  peculiar  distinctive  influences  of 
his  own  religion.  Every  person  familiar  with  the  subject  must  ac- 
knowledge, that  when  these  influences  are  applied,  they  are  most 
powerful.  And  why  not  as  efficacious  in  leading  Roman  Catholics  to 
abstain  from  the  use  of  alcohol,  as  meat  on  Fridays  and  other  Fast 
days  of  their  church  ?  They  may  be  equally  so  ;  and  every  one  who 
reads  Father  Matthew,  will  see  they  have  been  so  in  thousands  of 
cases. 

From  the  Long:  Island  Star. 

Father  Matthew  has  done  more  good  than  any  man  in  modern 
times.  His  memoir  will  do  to  place  beside  those  of  Oberlin  and  other 
good  men.  It  shows  how  masses  may  be  reformed  where  a  straight- 
forward zeal  of  action  concurs  with  the  feeling  of  importance  of  doc- 
trine. 

From  the  New- York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

The  wonders  wrought  in  Ireland  by  this  apostle  of  temperance, 
have  astonished  the  whole  world,  and  thousands  will  no  doubt  be  cu- 
rious to  know  something  of  his  personal  history  :  a  curiosity  which 
may  be  easily  gratified  by  the  purchase  of  this  well-written  narrative. 


MY  SON'S  BOOK.  15 


From  tlie  New-York  Courier  &  Enquirer. 

Father  Matthew  is  fairly  entitled  to  the  title  of  Temperance  Apos- 
tle, and  the  details  of  this  book  prove  it.  He  has  wrought  a  revolu- 
tion in  Ireland  which  may  be  considered  about  the  first  that  ever  re- 
suited  to  the  advantage  of  that  unfortunate  country.  The  blessings 
bestowed  upon  the  Irish  by  the  labors  of  this  reverend  gentleman,  are 
inestimable. 

From  the  Northampton  Democrat. 

This  work  is  destined  to  do  great  good,  and  should  be  in  the  hands 
of  every  man  who  has  ever  tasted  the  inebriating  cup.  The  editor,  Dr. 
Morris,  has  added  "  the  Evil  Effects  of  Drunkenness  Physiologically 
Explained,"  and  we  venture  to  assert,  that  any  man  in  his  sober  senses, 
who  will  give  this  portion  of  the  work  an  attentive  perusal,  if  he  were 
ever  intoxicated,  or  is  even  a  moderate  drinker,  will  forever  abandon 
the  vile  practice. 

From  the  Christian  Messenger. 

Who  has  not  heard  of  Father  Matthew  ?  and  of  the  more  than 
magic  influence,  as  it  were,  which  he  has  exerted  over  the  people  of 
Ireland  in  the  cause  of  total  abstinence  ?  Late  accounts  state  that 
his  teetotal  army  numbers  35  prelates,  700  clergymen,  and  4,647,000 
of  the  people !  It  is  stated  in  the  volume  before  us,  that  while  he 
was  laboring  inGalway,  about  100,000  were  received  into  the  Socie- 
ty in  the  space  of  two  days  !  People  came  in  crowds  from  all  direc- 
tions. The  life  of  a  man  who  thus  moves  a  nation  en  masse  in  a 
great  moral  effort,  cannot  but  be  perused  with  interest 


MY    SON'S    BOOK, 

OR 

YOUNG  MAN'S  GUIDE  TO  HONOR  AND  HAPPINESS. 

BY  THE  AUTHOR  OF  "  MY  DAUGHTER'S  MANUAL." 

The  object  of  this  little  volume  is  to  furnish  the  class  of  readers  indi- 
cated on  the  title  page,  with  a  Compend  of  Instruction  on  those  sub- 
jects most  interesting  to  young  men.  There  is  scarcely  a  subject  of 
the  kind  not  found  in  it.  Among  the  subjects  discussed  are,  Integ- 
rity— Sincerity  and  Truth — Temper — Choice  of  Company — Extrava- 
gance— Chastity — Honor — Female  Conversation — Punctuality — Cour- 
age— and  Religion.  (CF  It  has  a  steel  plate  Frontispiece  and  Title 
Page,  and  is  beautifully  printed  and  bound,  suitable  for  a  present  to 
be  preserved. 


16  INTERESTING  JUVENILE  BOOK. 


From  tlic  New-York  Weekly  Messenger. 

This  volume  will  prove  an  invaluable  companion  to  the  young  man 
who  desires  improvement  in  the  virtues  and  graces  which  belong  to 
the  Christian  character,  and  a  faithful  mentor  in  times  when  advice  is 
needed,  under  the  influence  of  temptations. 

From  the  Boston  Evening  Journal. 

It  contains  a  number  of  well-written  essays  on  various  important 
subjects — and  is  designed  as  a  monitor  and  a  guide  to  young  men, 
when  on  the  point  of  leaving  the  roof  of  their  parents,  and  entering 
upon  the  theatre  of  the  busy  world. 


THE  JUVENILE  COMPANION,  AND  FIRESIDE  READER, 

Consisting  of  Historical  and  Biographical  Anecdotes, 
and  Selections  in  Poetry. 


BY  THE  REV.  J.  L.  BLAKE,  D.  D. 


The  Juvenile  Companion  has  a  handsome.  Frontispiece,  and  is 
bound  in  morocco;  thus,  being  designed  for  family  use.  It  is  also, 
well  fitted  for  School  Libraries. 

This  volume  is  designed  to  teach  virtue  by  example,  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  Mrs.  Barbauld,  that  truth  is  better  than  fiction,  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  object. — "  Is  it  true  ?  a  child  asks,  when  you  tell 
him  a  wonderful  story  that  strikes  his  imagination."  This  remark  of 
that  accomplished  lady,  although  having  an  intimate  relation  to  an 
important  fact  in  intellectual  philosophy,  has  not  been  sufficiently  re- 
garded in  books  designed  for  the  young.  The  writer  of  fiction  has 
the  unlimited  command  of  events  and  characters  ;  yet,  the  single  cir- 
cumstance of  truth — that  the  events  related  really  came  to  pass — 
counterbalances,  with  respect  to  interest,  all  the  privileges  of  the  for- 
mer, and  in  a  mind  accustomed  to  exertion,  will  throw  the  advantage 
on  the  side  of  the  historian. 


Opinions  of  the  Juvenile  Companion. 

"  I  think  it  better  calculated  than  any  book  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted, to  interest  and  instruct  the  youthful  reader.  Its  merits  only 
need  to  be  known  to  bring  it  into  extensive  use." 


SUNDAY  SCHOOL  TEACHER^S  COMPANION.      17 


'  I  consider  it  one  of  the  best  books  that  I  have  seen.  It  cannot 
'ail  of  meeting  the  approbation,  so  far  as  its  merits  are  known,  of  all 
nterested  in  the  rising  generation." 

"  The  judicious  selection  and  happy  arrangement  both  of  prose 
and  poetry,  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  diction,  the  historical  facts, 
and  above  all,  the  moral  sentiments  inculcated,  inspire  the  belief  that 
the  author's  expectations  will  be  realized." 

"  The  moral  uses  of  the  lessons  have,  we  think,  been  kept  steadily 
n  view ;  and  the  natural  vivacity  of  the  narratives  facilitates  an  easy 
and  animated  style  of  reading.1' 


THE 

SUNDAY  SCHOOL  TEACHER'S  COMPANION, 

CONTAINING 

Extracts  from  various  Authors,  arranged  under  appropriate  Heads, 

affording  useful  Hints  to  those  who  are  employed  in 

the  Religious  Instruction  of  the  Young. 

"  They  that  be  wise  shall  shine  as  the  brightness  of  the  firmament,  and  they  that 
turn  many  to  righteousness,  as  the  stars  for  ever  and  ever." — DAN.  xii.  3. 


BY  THE  REV.  ANTHONY  TEN  BROECK, 

Rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  New-  York, 


THE  volume  is  selected  from  the  writings  of  James,  Watson,  Bisb 
op  Whittingham,  Morrison,  Bishop  Doane,  Lye,  Dr.  Abercrombie, 
Irvin,  Raffles,  Davis,  Dr.  Doddridge,  Bishop  Onderdonk  of  New- York, 
and  from  the  London  S.  S.  Teacher's  Magazine,  the  Family  Visiter, 
and  the  Christian  Observer. 

From  the  Banner  of  the  Cross. 

The  work,  which  contains  many  useful  suggestions,  and  much 
sound  exhortation,"is  stated  to  be  particularly  intended  for  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church ;  but  it  is  so  general  in  its  teaching,  that  we 
should  rather  have  thought  it  designed  for  circulation  among  Christians 
of  every  name. 


18  THE  YOUNG  ORATOR. 


THE    YOUNG    ORATOR, 

AND 

NEW-YORK    CLASS    BOOK. 

Especially  designed  to  prevent  Dulness  and  Monotony  in  the  Read, 
ing  and  Declamation  of  Schools. 


BY  THE  REV.  J.  L.  BLAKE,  D.  D. 


IN  the  course  of  two  years  of  the  publication  of  this  work,  ten  edi- 
tions have  been  printed,  and  the  following  are  some  of  the  numerous 
notices  of  it  in  the  periodical  press  : 

"  The  volume  is  made  up  of  Prose,  Poetry,  and  Dialogues  select- 
ed from  foreign  and  native  authors.  In  the  latter  we  find  some  of 
the  choicest  gems  from  Webster,  Everett,  Sprague,  Henry,  Channing, 
Hopkinson,  Story,  Maxcy,  Wayland,  Burges,  and  others.  From  a 
careful  examination  of  the  work,  we  feel  bound  to  say,  the  compiler 
has  executed  his  task  with  much  judgment,  and  that  he  has  avoided 
the  error  of  others  in  not  giving  a  sufficient  variety  to  his  selections." 

From  the  Rochester  Uaily  Democrat. 

It  has  peculiarities  which  make  it,  in  our  estimation,  superior  to 
many  others  of  a  corresponding  description,  and  we  think  it  will  be 
found  a  very  acceptable  work  in  all  our  schools. 

From  the  Boston  Transcript. 

This  is  a  compilation  intended  expressly  for  the  use  of  schools  in 
the  branches  of  reading  and  declamation,  in  which  care  has  been  ta- 
ken to  avoid  all  extracts  possessing  monotony  in  the  construction  of 
sentences,  thereby  preventing  a  monotony  of  voice  in  reading  or  dec- 
lamation. The  selection  is  a  good  one,  and  we  doubt  not  that  it  will 
prove  of  great  utility  in  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed. 

fc  From  the  New- York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

From  a  cursory  glance  through  its  pages,  we  are  not  surprised  at 
its  popularity.  The  plan  of  the  work,  and  its  execution,  are  both 
good. 


19 

THE   FAMILY   PRAYER   BOOK, 

OR 

THE   BOOK   OF   COMMON  PRAYER, 

And  Administration  of  the  Sacraments,  and  other  Sites  and  Cere. 
monies  of  the  Chureh,  according  to  the  use  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica; accompanied  by  a  General  Commen- 
tary,  Historical,   Explanatory, 
Doctrinal,  and  Practical. 


BY  THOMAS  CHURCH  BROWNELL,  D.  D.  LL.  D. 

From  the  Rt.  Rev.  Alexander  V.  Griswold,  D.  D. 

I  was  a  subscriber  to  Bishop  Brownell's  compilation  on  the  subject 
of  the  Prayer  Book ;  and  I  wish  that  you  may  be  prospered  in  your 
undertaking  to  publish  a  new  edition  of  it,  and  would  gladly  give 
you  any  assistance  in  my  power. 

From  the  Rt.  Rev.  Jackson  Kemper,  D.  D. 

I  consider  Bishop  Brownell's  Family  Prayer  Book  an  excellent 
work,  and  rejoice  to  learn  that  Mr.  Blake  intends  to  publish  a  second 
edition.  This  useful  volume  will,  I  trust,  be  extensively  circulated 
among  the  members  of  the  Church. — St.  Louis,  March  16,  1840. 

From  the  Rt.  Rev.  William  II.  De  JLancey,  D.  D. 

The  high  character  of  Bishop  Brownell's  Family  Prayer  Book  is  so 
firmly  established  as  not  to  need  commendations,  and  I  cordially  unite 
in  recommending  it  as  well  worthy  of  extended  circulation  among 
Churchmen  and  others. — Geneva,  Nov.  16,  1839. 

From  the  Rev.  Benjamin  I.  Ilaiglit. 

It  seems  to  me  almost  superfluous  to  add  one  word  in  commenda- 
tion of  a  volume  compiled  and  edited  by  such  a  man  as  Bishop 
Brownell,  from  the  works  of  the  most  approved  Divines  and  Litur- 
gical writers  of  the  Anglican  and  American  Churches — as  Shepherd, 
and  Nicholls,  and  Sparrow,  and  Bisse,  and  Comber,  and  Wheatley, 
and  Hole,  and  Seeker,  and  Home,  and  Stanhope,  and  White,  and 
Dehon,  and  Hobart,  and  many  others  of  no  less  note  and  excellence. 
I  hope  you  will  meet  with  ample  encouragement  in  the  publication 
of  the  work.  A  better  book  for  the  families  of  Churchmen  it  would 
not  be  easy  to  find.— New-  York,  Aug.  24,  1840. 


20  BROWNELL'S  FAMILY  PRAYER  BOOK. 


From  the  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  P.  Mcllvaine,  D.  ». 

You  have  requested  my  opinion  as  to  the  publication  of  a  stereo, 
type  edition  of  Bishop  Brownell's  Family  Prayer  Book.  You  need 
no  opinion  from  me  of  the  merits  of  the  work  itself.  A  new  and 
cheap  edition  would  certainly  be  very  much  in  time  at  present,  and 
if  so  published,  as  to  be  conveniently  accessible  to  families  generally 
in  our  Dioceses,  would  certainly  be  of  great  service  to  their  intelligent 
and  affectionate  union  with,  and  participation  in  the  excellent  fitness, 
as  well  as  Scriptural  soundness  and  devotional  beauty  of  our  Litur- 
gy.— Gambler,  Jan,  1840. 

From  the  Rev.  Francis  JL.  Hawks,  D.  D. 

I  have  always  deemed  Bishop  Brownell's  Prayer  Book  the  best 
compilation  for  general  use  among  the  members  of  our  communion ; 
and  while  I  know  that  its  merits  render  individual  recommendation 
unnecessary,  I  may  be  permitted  to  express  my  gratification  in  the 
prospect  of  a  new  edition. 

From  the  lit.  Rev.  Benjamin  T.  Ouderdonk,  ».  D. 

I  am  happy  to  hear  of  the  projected  new  edition  of  Bishop  Brow- 
nell's Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Believing  the 
work  to  be  a  highly  valuable  and  useful  one,  I  sincerely  hope  that  the 
edition  will  be  liberally  patronized. 

From  the  Rev.  William.  H.  Odenheimer. 

The  numerous  testimonials  to  the  high  value  of  Bishop  Brownell's 
work  on  the  American  Ritual,  must  bespeak,  for  this  second  edition, 
a  right  hearty  welcome.  To  the  intelligent  Churchman  or  Dissenter, 
seeking  to  know  the  history,  doctrinal  richness,  and  catholic  spirit  of 
the  Prayer  Book,  the  mass  of  information  collected  and  digested  in 
the  present  volume  is  invaluable. 

From  the  Rt.  Rev.  Christopher  K.  Gmlsdcn,  D.  ». 

I  concur  with  Bishop  Whittingham,  in  regard  to  the  Family  Prayer 
Book.  I  have  had  a  copy  of  the  first  edition,  and  valued  the  work 
for  its  instruction  ;  and  in  particular  for  giving  us  the  remarks  of  va- 
rious Liturgical  writers.  Who  would  not  rather  have  a  work,  like 
Pool's  Synopsis,  which  comprises  the  comments  of  many  most  intel- 
ligent, learned,  and  pious  writers,  than  the  production  of  a  single  mind 
and  heart,  however  able  and  good  the  individual  might  be  ? 

From  the  Rev.  Stephen  H.  Tyng,  D.  D. 

I  cheerfully  add  my  recommendation  to  this  new  effort  to  increase 
the  circulation  of  Bishop  Brownell's  Family  Prayer  Book. 


THE  NEW- YORK  REVIEW.  21 


THE    NEW-YORK    REVIEW, 


CONDUCTED  BY 

J.  G.  COGSWELL,  EDITOR  AND   PROPRIETOR, 

54   GOLD-STREET. 


The  PLAN  of  "  THE  NEW  YORK  REVIEW"  embraces— 

1.  Extended  Reviews  of  important  works,  and  discussions  of  im- 
portant subjects — similar  in  form  and  manner  to  those  which  make 
up  the  contents  of  Quarterly  Reviews  generally. 

2.  Critical  Notices  of  new  publications — giving  a  brief  but  com- 
plete and  thorough  survey  of  the  principal  literary  productions  of 
every  quarter ;  particularly  of  those  issued  from  the  American  press. 
This  department  of  the  Review  makes  it  highly  serviceable  to  all 
buyers  of  books — especially  to  the  Committees  of  Public  Libraries, 
Reading  Rooms,  and  Literary  Societies — by  the  aid  it  affords  them 
in  acquiring  a  knowledge  and  in  judging  of  the  worth  of  recent  pub- 
lications. 

3.  A  Quarterly  Chronicle  of  the  most  interesting  facts  connected 
with  the  advancement  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art,  and  the  pro- 
gress of  Society  in  Education,  Morals,  Religion,  and  Civil  Liberty. 

This  Journal  is  designed  to  be  a  general  Review  for  the  whole 
country.  Its  OBJECT  is  to  promote  the  interests  of  good  Literature,  of 
Science,  and  of  sound  principles  in  Religion,  Philosophy,  Morals, 
Government,  and  in  Politics. 

In  Literature,  it  will  aim  to  elevate  public  taste  ;  to  develop  and 
apply — as  well  to  the  master-works  of  former  times,  as  to  current 
works  in  the  various  departments  of  letters — the  principles  of  a  just 
and  philosophical  criticism. 

In  regard  to  Political  subjects,  and  matters  of  public  and  social  in- 
terest, it  will  endeavor  to  promote  the  spread  of  sound  principles; 
disregarding,  however,  all  mere  party  questions. 

On  Religious  subjects,  its  general  tone  and  spirit  will  be  conformed 
to  the  principles  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church — of  which  its 
Editor  is  a  member.  He  wishes  it,  however,  to  be  distinctly  under- 
stood, that  it  does  not  accord  with  his  sense  of  duty,  that  the  Review 
should  assume  a  party  attitude  in  regard  to  questions  that  may  divide 
the  Church  ;  still  less,  that  it  should  enter  into  controversy  against 
other  communities.  It  is  not  consistent  with  the  sphere  of  usefulness 
originally  and  always  contemplated  for  this  journal,  that  the  religious 
opinions  of  the  editor  should  influence  the  conduct  of  the  work,  as  to 


22  THE  NEW- YORK  REVIEW. 


diminish  its  interest  or  value  in  the  judgment  of  candid  and  intelligent 
readers  of  all  denominations  throughout  the  country. 

From  the  Philadelphia  Saturday  Evening  News. 

The  numbers  of  the  Review  thus  far  published,  have  been  marked 
by  much  ability.  The  articles  generally  display  extensive  informa- 
tion, sagacious  and  acute  criticism,  and  a  high  manly  tone  of  feeling. 

From  the  Philadelphia  National  Gazette. 

We  have  read  with  great  pleasure  the  third  number  of  the  New- 
York  Review,  and  earnestly  commend  it  to  general  and  favorable  at. 
tention.  Its  editors  have  proved  themselves  in  every  way  qualified 
for  the  task  they  have  undertaken. 

From  the  ^few-York  American. 

We  have  here  another  capital  number  of  this  valuable  periodical. 
Some  of  the  articles  we  think  would  do  credit  to  any  critical  journal 
in  existence. 

From  the  New- York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

The  Review  is  evidently  destined  to  exert  a  powerful  influence  not 
only  on  American  literature,  but  also  on  the  literary  taste  and  under- 
standing  of  the  American  people.  It  should  be  sustained  as  a  most 
valuable  engine  of  resistance  to  the  prevalent  heresies  of  the  day  in 
morals,  literature,  and  politics,  for  on  all  these  its  views  are  sound. 

From  the  Western  Emporium. 

There  is  no  periodical,  circulated  in  our  native  country,  that  we 
can  recommend  with  so  much  sincerity  and  fervor,  as  this  quarterly 
miscellany.  Its  ample  and  immense  research,  its  pure  and  patriotic 
spirit,  its  lofty  and  enlightened  piety,  its  deep  philosophy,  and  well- 
selected  language,  place  it,  in  our  estimation,  at  the  head  of  periodic- 
als, both  in  this  country  and  every  other.  We  commend  it  to  the 
patronage  of  our  fellow-citizens,  with  a  full  conviction  that  its  circu- 
lation will  prove  a  blessing  to  the  country. 

From  the  London  Spectator. 

The  [fifth]  number  of  the  New- York  Review  contains  a  batch  of 
short  notices,  distinguished  by  a  higher  tone  of  criticism  than  any 
thing  of  the  kind  done  in  England. 

From  the  Edinburgh  Chronicle. 

The  New- York  Review  is  second  to  none  published  in  Europe,  and 
is  written  and  executed  in  a  spirit  superior  to  most  of  them.  Care- 
fully composed  in  the  best  style  of  English  Literature,  its  style  will 
serve  for  a  model  to  the  lovers  of  literature  in  this  country — and  its 


NEW  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  BOOK.          23 


bias  in  religion,  literature,  and  politics,  be  the  salvation  of  it,  if  fully 
acted  on.  Calm,  considerate,  learned,  and  respectful,  its  talented 
contributers  address  every  one  whom  they  condescend  to  notice,  in 
the  true  spirit  of  logical  and  educated  courtesy ;  conciliatory  when 
differing  in  opinion,  and  hearty  in  their  commendations. 

"  THE  NEW- YORK  REVIEW  is'published  Quarterly — on  the  first 
of  January,' April,  July,  and  OctobVr-'— making  Two  Volumes  a  year, 
of  five  hundred  to  five'  hundred  and  fifty  pages  each.  Price,  FIVE 
DOLLARS  per  annum,  payable  in  advance. 


ARITHMETIC; 

ON     THE    PRINCIPLE    OF 

HASSLER    AND    LACROIX. 


BY  THE  REV.  W.  F.  WALKER,  A.  M. 

Late  Principal  of  the  Troy  Episcopal  Institute. 


THE  interest,  during  the  last  few  years,  felt  in  behalf  of  improved 
modes  of  education,  and  the  consequent  liberal  patronage  bestowed 
on  teachers,  has  naturally  led  many  of  the  first  men  in  the  country 
to  devote  themselves  to  the  subject.  It  is  now  no  unusual  thing  to 
see  gentlemen,  filling  the  highest  grades  of  the  learned  professions, 
apply  themselves  to  the  instruction  of  youth.  This  has  sometimes 
been  done,  on  the  ground  of  greater  pecuniary  gain ;  and,  some- 
times, on  the  principle  that  will  govern  those  who  become  pioneers 
in  labors  of  benevolence  or  high  intellectual  distinction.  Surely  no 
higher  honor  can  be  reached,  whether  from  the  attainment  of  mental 
or  moral  eminence,  than  that  which  awaits  a  successful  effort  for  an 
early  and  beneficial  development  of  human  character. 

Among  the  advantages  resulting  from  this  devotion  of  the  highest 
talents  to  the  business  of  instruction,  is  the  greatly  improved  Text- 
Books  recently  produced.  These  Text-Books  relate  to  nearly  every 
department  of  science  and  literature.  Additions  are  constantly  made 


24  NEW  IMPROVED  SCHOOL  BOOK. 


to  the  stock.  As  much  as  had  been  accomplished  in  previous  years, 
in  regard  to  any  particular  department,  some  effort  now  and  then  en- 
tirely explodes  all  or  nearly  all  accomplished,  and  presents  an  entire- 
ly  new  principle  in  the  labor  of  instruction,  or  in  the  use  of  an  old 
one.  This  is  peculiarly  true,  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  imparting  to 
young  minds  the  philosophy  of  numbers — or  what  is  more  familiarly 
called  Arithmetic.  Each  new  work  on  the  subject  has  led  to  anoth- 
er with  fresh  claims  to  excellence  ;  and  the  confidence  is  strong  that 
the  present  work  of  Walker  will  be  found  as  much  an  improvement 
on  all  previous  systems  of  Arithmetic,  as  the  recent  more  popular 
ones  are  upon  those  used  fifty  years  since.  An  outline  of  its  distinc- 
tive features  will  be  found  in  the  following  extracts  from  the  Au- 
thor's Preface : — 

"  The  principles  of  numbers  can  be  only  those  of  increase  and 
diminution ;  the  former  invariably  under  the  forms,  addition  and  mul- 
tiplication ;  the  latter  under  those  of  subtraction  and  division.  Why 
then  should  rules  be  so  multiplied  ? 

"  These  principles  are  applied  in  this  work,  in  Part  I.  to  simple  or 
abstract  numbers ;  in  Part  II.  to  parts  of  simple  numbers,  or  simple 
fractions ;  in  Part  III.  to  denominate  numbers,  or  denominate  frac- 
tions, as  they  are  termed,  after  Mr.  Hassler ;  and  in  Part  IV.  they  are 
applied  to  all  quantities  indiscriminately ;  for  which  the  other  parts 
are,  as  already  stated,  only  preparatory  ;  Part  V.  embraces  the  roots. 

"  Throughout  the  first  three  parts,  the  principles,  and  every  appli- 
cation of  them,  are  illustrated  and  explained ;  with  these  parts  ex- 
planations cease,  and  the  pupil  is  thrown  on  his  own  resources,  to 
analyze  and  develop  for  himself,  except  in  Part  V. 

"  The  illustrations  will  in  all  cases  guide  the  pupil  in  the  special 
application  of  the  principles  proposed,  and  to  them  alone  it  is  expect- 
ed the  younger  classes  of  pupils  will  have  regard ;  omitting  the  ex- 
planations, which  are  abstract  reasonings  on  stated  applications  of 
the  principles,  as  presented  to  the  cases  and  rules,  to  be  analyzed,  and 
presented  in  substance,  when  more  maturity  and  greater  familiarity 
in  operations  under  the  rules,  guided  by  the  illustrations,  are  attained. 

"  It  is  intended  thafthe  cases  and  rules  should  be  thoroughly  com- 
mitted to  memory  ;  that  the  illustrations  should  be  before  the  pupil,  to 
show  him  how  the  application  required  is  made  ;  that  the  explanations 
should  be  mastered  by  analysis  by  older  pupils ;  and  the  examples 
are  for  practice  by  all." 


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